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♪ ♪

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[ APPLAUSE ]

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-THANK YOU VERY MUCH.

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AND THIS IS KIND
OF A NEAT SLIDE.

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THAT ACTUALLY IS A PICTURE
OF ME TAKEN BY DREW FEUSTEL

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AS I WAS REPAIRING
THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE.

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AND AS CHRIS SCOLESE SAID,
I STARTED OUT LIFE --

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UH, WELL, I'M NOT GONNA
TELL YOU THE LONG STORY --

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BUT AS A HIGH-ENERGY
ASTROPHYSICIST,

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AND I WAS JUST FASCINATED BY
BLACK HOLES AND NEUTRON STARS.

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MY FIRST SCIENTIFIC PAPER

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WAS AN OBSERVATION
OF A NEUTRON STAR --

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A STAR THE SIZE

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OF WASHINGTON, D.C.,
ROTATING RAPIDLY

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WITH THE DENSITY
OF NUCLEAR OF MATTER --

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AND WENT ON TO BUILD
BALLOON PAYLOADS

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AND DO EXPERIMENTS AND WORK
WITH SPACE EXPERIMENTS,

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INCLUDING
THE COMPTON OBSERVATORY,

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THAT I WAS CONVINCED
WAS GONNA BE MY CAREER.

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AND I LOOKED VERY JEALOUSLY
AT THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE,

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THINKING, "OH,
IT'S JUST AN OPTICAL TELESCOPE.

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IT'S TAKING ALL THE MONEY.

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THE REAL ACTION
IS IN HIGH-ENERGY ASTROPHYSICS."

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YOU KNOW, BUT I THINK WE SHOULD
ALL BE CONTINUOUS LEARNERS,

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AND I LEARNED
HOW IMPORTANT HUBBLE IS.

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AND THE NEXT SPEAKER
WILL REFER TO THAT.

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AND, IN FACT, I BECAME,

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ACTUALLY, QUITE TRANSFORMED
BY THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE.

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BUT I ALSO BECAME TRANSFORMED
BY THE FACT THAT WHEN

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THE COMPTON OBSERVATORY WAS
ON THE END OF THE ROBOTIC ARM,

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THE HIGH-GAIN ANTENNA
DIDN'T DEPLOY.

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AND IT WAS JERRY ROSS
AND JAY APT WHO WENT OUT

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AND DID A SPACE WALK
AND DEPLOYED IT,

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ENABLING MY RESEARCH
AND MANY OF THE FOLKS

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THAT ARE IN THIS ROOM

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TO BE ABLE TO UNRAVEL
THE MYSTERIES OF THE UNIVERSE --

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THE HIGH-ENERGY UNIVERSE --

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WITH COMPTON.

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AND WE'RE GONNA
HEAR MORE ABOUT, YOU KNOW,

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SOME OF THE FOLLOW-ON GREAT
SPACE CRAFT AND EXPERIMENTS

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AND THE SCIENCE.

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BUT IT REALLY COMES DOWN
TO WHAT NASA's ALL ABOUT.

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YOU KNOW, WE INNOVATE,

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WE EXPLORE,

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WE DISCOVER,

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AND WE INSPIRE.

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AND WE INNOVATE TO BUILD
THE KIND OF TECHNOLOGIES

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THAT ALLOW US TO BUILD
SPACE CRAFT LIKE NuSTAR,

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WHICH YOU'LL HEAR ABOUT.

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WE USE THOSE INNOVATIONS
TO EXPLORE THE UNIVERSE.

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AND WHEN WE EXPLORE,
WE DISCOVER THINGS.

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AND THAT'S WHERE THE HUMAN
ELEMENT IS AT ITS STRONGEST.

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WE'RE DRIVEN.

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I THINK WE'RE GENETICALLY
PROGRAMMED

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TO BE ENERGIZED
BY THOSE DISCOVERIES.

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AND WHEN WE'RE ENERGIZED
AS SCIENTISTS,

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WE'RE ABLE TO INSPIRE A COUNTRY,
A WORLD, STUDENTS,

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EVERYONE.

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AND I THINK THAT'S
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SCIENCE

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THAT WE DO.

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WE'RE ALSO ASKING
HUMAN QUESTIONS, IN ESSENCE.

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WE'RE ASKING FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS
QUESTIONS, SCIENCE QUESTIONS,

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BUT WE'RE TRYING
TO FIND OUT, YOU KNOW,

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WHERE DID WE COME FROM,
WHERE DID THE UNIVERSE

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THAT WE LIVE IN COME FROM,

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AND WHY DOES IT LOOK THE WAY
THAT IT DOES.

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WHERE DO THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

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THAT WE'RE MADE
OUT OF COME FROM?

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AND IT TURNS OUT THEY CAME
FROM A VERY VIOLENT UNIVERSE.

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AND WE'LL HEAR, HOPEFULLY,
A LITTLE BIT ABOUT THAT.

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YOU KNOW, WE'RE MADE
OUT OF STAR STUFF

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THAT HAD TO GET FROM THE INSIDE
OF STARS, OUT OF STARS,

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TO FORM NEW STARS, PLANETS,
AND US.

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WHERE ARE WE GOING?

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WHAT'S THE FUTURE
OF THE UNIVERSE?

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THAT'S ALSO DOMINATED
BY HIGH-ENERGY PROCESSES.

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BUT ALSO, WHERE ARE WE
GOING ON PLANET EARTH?

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THAT'S ONE OF THE THINGS
THAT WE DO IN EARTH SCIENCE.

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AND THEN THE BIG QUESTION,

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WHICH I DON'T THINK HIGH-ENERGY
ASTROPHYSICS IS GONNA ANSWER,

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BUT ONE I'M FASCINATED BY IS
"ARE WE ALONE?"

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AND THAT'S WHY SOME
OF OUR PLANETARY MISSIONS

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AND OUR EXOPLANET MISSIONS, I
THINK, ARE SO INTERESTING NOW.

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BECAUSE WE ARE ONE STEP

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AWAY FROM HAVING
THE TECHNOLOGICAL CAPABILITY

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TO ANSWER THE QUESTION
THROUGH TELESCOPIC OBSERVATION

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OF NEARBY EXOPLANETS,

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INTERROGATING THEIR ATMOSPHERES,

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TO FIND OUT
IF WE'RE ALONE IN THE UNIVERSE.

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OR A FUTURE
PLANETARY SCIENTIST --

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AND THERE'S SOME YOUNG PEOPLE
IN THE AUDIENCE

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THAT ARE THOSE FUTURE
PLANETARY SCIENTISTS --

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WHO ARE GONNA WALK
ON THE SURFACE

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OF MARS WITH ANALYTIC TOOLS

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THAT MAY BE ABLE TO TELL US
WHETHER THERE'S LIFE

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ON MARS OR A PLANETARY MISSION
EXPLORING EUROPA.

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SO, THIS IS ONE OF MY FAVORITE
EVENTS, BECAUSE EVERY YEAR,

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WE GET TO HEAR
ABOUT THE GREAT SCIENCE

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THAT'S GOING ON AT
THE GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER

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AND THROUGH ITS PARTICIPATING
SCIENTISTS

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AND REALLY LEARN
SOMETHING IMPORTANT.

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AND SO, WHAT I'D LIKE TO DO
IN MY FINAL COMMENT TONIGHT

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IS ADDRESS THE "INSPIRE" PART

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OF OUR MISSION,

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WHICH IS TO ASK
ALL OF YOU TONIGHT,

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AFTER YOU LEAVE, YOU KNOW,

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DRIVE SAFELY GOING HOME,

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BUT TOMORROW AND THE NEXT DAY
AND, YOU KNOW,

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FOR REALLY, HOPEFULLY,

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THE REST OF YOUR LIVES,

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AS YOU LEARN ABOUT OUR GREAT
SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS,

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AS YOU YOURSELVES,

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YOU KNOW, DISCOVER THINGS,

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SHARE IT WITH YOUR NEIGHBORS.

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CERTAINLY SHARE IT
WITH YOUR FAMILY MEMBERS.

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YOU KNOW, MANY OF US GO TO WORK
IN THE SCIENCE COMMUNITY.

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WE WORK REALLY HARD,
WE COME HOME,

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WE'RE TIRED, YOU KNOW,
WE HAVE A MEAL, WE GO TO SLEEP,

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AND WE DON'T TELL OUR FAMILIES
ABOUT THE GREAT WORK

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AND INCREDIBLE WORK WE'RE DOING
STUDYING THE ENVIRONMENT

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AROUND A BLACK HOLE
OR A ROTATING NEUTRON STAR

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OR AN ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI,

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AND IT REALLY IS AMAZING.

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PEOPLE ARE AMAZED BY WHAT WE DO.

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SHARE IT WITH YOUR COMMUNITY
GROUPS.

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SHARE IT WITH LOCAL SCHOOLS,

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BECAUSE IT'S
THROUGH THAT COMMUNICATION

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THAT WE INSPIRE THE WORLD.

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SO, I HOPE
YOU'RE ALL INSPIRED TONIGHT.

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AND I WAS INSPIRED WHEN I
WAS A HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT --

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I LIKE TO SAY EVERYTHING
I LEARNED ABOUT ASTRONOMY,

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I LEARNED
AS A HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT --

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IN A PROGRAM AT A SMALL
PLANETARIUM IN CHICAGO

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CALLED THE ADLER PLANETARIUM.

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AND ONE OF THE GRADUATE
ASSISTANTS THAT WAS TEACHING US

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WAS SOMEBODY WHO HAS,
THROUGHOUT MY CAREER,

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BECOME A MENTOR

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AND WAS MY PREDECESSOR.

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AND SO, I'D LIKE TO BRING UP
DR. ED WEILER

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TO GIVE US AN INTRODUCTION.

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[ APPLAUSE ]

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-THANKS, JOHN.

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I'M REALLY NOT THAT OLD.

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[ LAUGHTER ]

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BUT I AM RETIRED,
IF YOU WONDER WHERE I'VE BEEN

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THE LAST FOUR YEARS.

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UH, BUT WHEN YOU'RE RETIRED,

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YOU HAVE LOTS OF TIME,

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FINALLY, ESPECIALLY
BETWEEN TENNIS MATCHES,

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TO GAIN PERSPECTIVE

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ON WHAT'S HAPPENED
IN YOUR FIELD OF ASTROPHYSICS

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OVER THE PAST 40 YEARS.

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THAT'S HOW LONG
MY CAREER HAS BEEN.

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BACK IN THE '70s AND '80s,

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WHEN MANY OF US WERE IN GRAD
SCHOOL OR JUST STARTING COLLEGE,

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WE THOUGHT WE KNEW A LOT
ABOUT THE UNIVERSE.

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WE WERE PRETTY ARROGANT.

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WE KIND OF KNEW
HOW STARS WERE FORMED

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AND HOW THEIR ATMOSPHERES
WORKED, ET CETERA.

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BUT THERE WERE SOME AWFULLY BIG
PROBLEMS LEFT UNSOLVED,

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WHICH WERE NAGGING AT US.

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AND THOSE ARE THE ONES
WE'LL BE ADDRESSING,

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SOME OF THEM, TONIGHT.

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FOR INSTANCE, DO SUPERMASSIVE
BLACK HOLES REALLY EXIST?

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OR ARE THEY
JUST MERE SCIENCE FICTION

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AND FODDER FOR SHOWS
LIKE "STAR TREK"?

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WHAT ARE QUASI-STELLAR OBJECTS,
QUASARS?

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THEY APPEAR AS PINPOINTS
OF LIGHT IN THE SKY,

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BUT EXTREMELY DISTANT
AND THUS VERY ENERGETIC.

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SOME ARE RELATIVELY QUIET WHILE
OTHERS SEEM HIGHLY VARIABLE.

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DO THEY HAVE HOMES
IN THE UNIVERSE,

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OR ARE THEY SOLITARY OBJECTS
IN THE VAST DARKNESS?

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IN THE EARLY '80s,
DIFFUSE X-RAY BACKGROUND

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WAS DISCOVERED
TO FILL THE NIGHTTIME SKY.

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WHAT WAS IT?

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GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
WERE SEEN ALMOST ONCE A DAY.

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THEY LAST VERY SHORT PERIODS
OF TIME -- SECONDS,

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OR UP TO A DAY.

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ARE THEY NEARBY OR EXTREMELY
DISTANT AND THUS VERY ENERGETIC?

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AND FINALLY, WE THINK
SUPERNOVA -- BACK IN THE '80s,

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WE KNEW SUPERNOVA WERE PROBABLY
VIOLENT EXPLOSIONS,

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BUT WHAT WAS THEIR EXACT NATURE?

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WE KNOW THAT THEY CREATED
ELEMENTS IN OUR BODIES --

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CALCIUM, IRON, ET CETERA.

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AND THUS, IT WAS IMPORTANT
TO BETTER UNDERSTAND

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THESE VIOLENT PHENOMENA.

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IT WAS RECOGNIZED
BY MANY BACK THEN TO TACKLE

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AS BROAD A RAY OF MYSTERIES,

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IT WOULD TAKE LARGE SPACE
OBSERVATORIES OPERATED

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IN MULTIPLE WAVELENGTH BANDS
FROM GAMMA RAY TO INFRARED.

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AND SOON, WE'LL SEE --

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YOU CAN THINK
YOU'LL HEAR THE TERM WAVELENGTH

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TONIGHT, PERHAPS.

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THINK OF WAVELENGTH AS COLORS.

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OUR EYES CAN ONLY SEE
IN THIS LITTLE AREA

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OF VISIBLE LIGHT HERE.

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IF YOU WANT TO LOOK
IN THE ULTRAVIOLET, X-RAY,

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GAMMA RAY, MUCH OF THE INFRARED,

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YOU HAVE TO GO INTO SPACE
TO GET -- TO SEE, BASICALLY,

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THE REST OF THE UNIVERSE.

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I REMEMBER AFTER WE SOLD HUBBLE,

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WE WERE TRYING TO SELL
A GAMMA-RAY OBSERVATORY

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AND SIRTF AND AXAF.

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AND ONE CONGRESSIONAL STAFFER,

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WHO SHALL REMAIN UNNAMED,

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CAME UP TO ME AND SAID, "HEY,
YOU GUYS ARE GETTING HUBBLE.

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WE'RE PAYING A LOT FOR HUBBLE.

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WHY IN THE WORLD DO YOU NEED
ALL THESE OTHER OBSERVATORIES?"

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AND I'LL USE THE ANALOGY
I USED THAT DAY WITH HIM,

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AND I SAID, "WELL, IF YOU HAD
A REALLY BAD DISEASE

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AND YOU WENT TO THE DOCTOR
TO GET DIAGNOSED,

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WOULD YOU GO TO A DOCTOR
WHO BASICALLY USES

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THEIR EYES AND THEIR HANDS
TO DIAGNOSE YOU?

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OR WOULD YOU PREFER A DOCTOR

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THAT MIGHT USE
STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNOLOGY

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LIKE MRIs, CAT SCANNERS,

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STETHOSCOPES, EVEN,

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ULTRASOUNDS?"

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AND ASTRONOMERS
ARE IN THE SAME BOAT.

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IF YOU REALLY WANT TO UNDERSTAND

221
00:08:39,165 --> 00:08:40,759
A LOT OF OBJECTS
IN THE UNIVERSE,

222
00:08:40,759 --> 00:08:43,033
YOU'VE GOT TO LOOK
AT ALL WAVELENGTH AREAS.

223
00:08:43,033 --> 00:08:45,726
BECAUSE THESE WAVELENGTH AREAS
REALLY TELL YOU

224
00:08:45,726 --> 00:08:48,594
ABOUT THE TEMPERATURE
OF THE MATTER IN THE OBJECT.

225
00:08:48,594 --> 00:08:49,957
GAMMA RAYS AND X-RAYS --

226
00:08:49,957 --> 00:08:52,132
TENS OF MILLIONS,
HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS OF DEGREES.

227
00:08:52,132 --> 00:08:54,693
ULTRAVIOLENT -- HUNDREDS
OF THOUSANDS OF DEGREES.

228
00:08:54,693 --> 00:08:57,066
VISIBLE LIGHT -- TENS
OF THOUSANDS OF DEGREES.

229
00:08:57,066 --> 00:08:58,924
INFRARED -- HUNDREDS OF DEGREES.

230
00:08:58,924 --> 00:09:00,462
SO, IF YOU WANT
TO UNDERSTAND AN OBJECT,

231
00:09:00,462 --> 00:09:04,858
YOU REALLY HAVE TO LOOK AT IT
IN MANY, MANY DIFFERENT WAYS.

232
00:09:04,858 --> 00:09:07,462
AN EXAMPLE
OF MULTISPECTRAL IMAGINING IS

233
00:09:07,462 --> 00:09:10,528
DISPLAYED IN THE NEXT TWO IMAGES
THAT WILL BE COMING UP.

234
00:09:10,528 --> 00:09:14,957
ON THE LEFT HERE IS A HUBBLE
IMAGE OF CASSIOPEIA A.

235
00:09:14,957 --> 00:09:18,132
IT'S THE RESULT OF A SUPERNOVA
THAT HAPPENED A LONG TIME AGO.

236
00:09:18,132 --> 00:09:19,891
SUPERNOVA OCCURRED HERE.

237
00:09:19,891 --> 00:09:22,429
AND WHAT YOU'RE SEEING NOW IS
THE LEFTOVERS OF THE SUPERNOVA

238
00:09:22,429 --> 00:09:26,495
GLOWING AT ABOUT 10,000,
20,000 DEGREES.

239
00:09:26,495 --> 00:09:29,033
AND UNTIL WE LAUNCHED X-RAY
TELESCOPES,

240
00:09:29,033 --> 00:09:30,759
THAT'S AS MUCH AS WE SAW.

241
00:09:30,759 --> 00:09:34,297
THIS IS A CHANDRA IMAGE
HERE ON THE RIGHT.

242
00:09:34,297 --> 00:09:36,066
LET'S SEE -- YOUR RIGHT.

243
00:09:36,066 --> 00:09:37,627
AND AS YOU CAN SEE,

244
00:09:37,627 --> 00:09:39,627
THIS IS NOW SHOWING US
MILLION-DEGREE GAS,

245
00:09:39,627 --> 00:09:41,429
TENS-OF-MILLIONS-DEGREE GAS.

246
00:09:41,429 --> 00:09:43,858
AND YOU CAN SEE THE VERY BIG
DIFFERENCE IN STRUCTURE.

247
00:09:43,858 --> 00:09:46,429
YOU LEARN UNIQUE THINGS BY
LOOKING AT DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS

248
00:09:46,429 --> 00:09:49,825
AND A DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE
OF OBJECTS.

249
00:09:49,825 --> 00:09:51,297
IN THE EARLY 1980s,

250
00:09:51,297 --> 00:09:53,363
THE GREAT OBSERVATORY PROGRAM
WAS CREATED

251
00:09:53,363 --> 00:09:55,825
BY DR. CHARLIE PELLERIN.

252
00:09:55,825 --> 00:09:59,066
HE WAS A VISIONARY
AT HEADQUARTERS WHO REALIZED IT

253
00:09:59,066 --> 00:10:02,726
WOULD BE DIFFICULT TO SELL
INDIVIDUAL FLAGSHIP MISSIONS

254
00:10:02,726 --> 00:10:05,231
THAT COVERED THE WHOLE SPECTRUM
FROM GAMMA RAY TO INFRARED,

255
00:10:05,231 --> 00:10:08,231
SO HE CREATED
A SCIENTIFICALLY DRIVEN PROGRAM

256
00:10:08,231 --> 00:10:11,330
THAT INCLUDED THE ALREADY-FUNDED
HUBBLE AND COMPTON MISSIONS

257
00:10:11,330 --> 00:10:14,858
AND THE AXAF AND SIRTF MISSIONS
THAT WERE UNDER STUDY.

258
00:10:14,858 --> 00:10:17,066
HE WAS OBVIOUSLY SUCCESSFUL,

259
00:10:17,066 --> 00:10:19,891
AND THE EARLY DISCOVERIES
FROM THESE OBSERVATORIES

260
00:10:19,891 --> 00:10:22,132
ALLOWED US TO LAUNCH
FOLLOW-ON MISSIONS

261
00:10:22,132 --> 00:10:23,231
THAT YOU'LL HEAR ABOUT TONIGHT,

262
00:10:23,231 --> 00:10:24,792
SUCH AS FERMI, SWIFT,

263
00:10:24,792 --> 00:10:26,000
AND NuSTAR,

264
00:10:26,000 --> 00:10:27,891
TO NAME A FEW.

265
00:10:27,891 --> 00:10:29,231
NOW, FOR THE REST
OF THE EVENING,

266
00:10:29,231 --> 00:10:30,891
WE'LL BE DESCRIBING THE PROGRESS

267
00:10:30,891 --> 00:10:33,000
WE HAVE MADE
OVER THE PAST 30 YEARS

268
00:10:33,000 --> 00:10:34,429
IN TACKLING
SOME OF THE QUESTIONS

269
00:10:34,429 --> 00:10:37,264
I JUST DISCUSSED
IN OUR VIOLENT UNIVERSE.

270
00:10:37,264 --> 00:10:40,858
I HOPE THAT WE WILL CONVINCE YOU
THAT THE LAST 30 YEARS --

271
00:10:40,858 --> 00:10:42,231
THREE DECADES -- HAVE TRULY BEEN

272
00:10:42,231 --> 00:10:46,858
AN AGE OF DISCOVERY AND AN
ASTROPHYSICAL RENAISSANCE.

273
00:10:46,858 --> 00:10:49,396
I WILL DISCUSS BRIEFLY
THREE MAJOR BREAKTHROUGHS,

274
00:10:49,396 --> 00:10:52,099
INCLUDING THE EXISTENCE
OF SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES,

275
00:10:52,099 --> 00:10:54,891
THE NATURES OF QUASARS
AND THEIR POWER SOURCE,

276
00:10:54,891 --> 00:10:57,825
AND THE NATURE
OF DIFFUSE X-RAY BACKGROUND.

277
00:10:57,825 --> 00:11:00,099
JEREMY WILL FOLLOW ME
WITH A MORE DETAILED LOOK

278
00:11:00,099 --> 00:11:01,759
INTO THE NATURE OF BLACK HOLES.

279
00:11:01,759 --> 00:11:05,429
FIONA WILL DISCUSS SUPERNOVA
EXPLOSIONS AND THEIR AFTERMATH.

280
00:11:05,429 --> 00:11:07,924
AND NEIL WILL CONCLUDE
BY TELLING US HOW FAR

281
00:11:07,924 --> 00:11:11,759
WE'VE COME IN UNDERSTANDING
MYSTERIOUS GAMMA-RAY BURSTS.

282
00:11:11,759 --> 00:11:13,957
FIRST, ONE OF THE MOST
INTRIGUING MYSTERIES

283
00:11:13,957 --> 00:11:15,264
OF ASTROPHYSICS,

284
00:11:15,264 --> 00:11:17,396
ESPECIALLY BACK
IN THE '70s AND '80s.

285
00:11:17,396 --> 00:11:20,957
DO SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES
EXIST?

286
00:11:20,957 --> 00:11:23,000
AND, UH, ACTUALLY, THAT QUESTION

287
00:11:23,000 --> 00:11:27,891
CAME TO AN ABRUPT END IN 1994
WHEN SOME OF THE FIRST IMAGES

288
00:11:27,891 --> 00:11:30,792
FROM THE REPAIRED
HUBBLE TELESCOPE CAME BACK.

289
00:11:30,792 --> 00:11:34,330
THIS IS THE GALAXY M87 HERE.

290
00:11:34,330 --> 00:11:36,132
YOU SEE THE RADIO JET.

291
00:11:36,132 --> 00:11:37,264
AND FOR THE FIRST TIME,

292
00:11:37,264 --> 00:11:39,594
WE WERE ABLE TO IMAGE THE GAS --

293
00:11:39,594 --> 00:11:44,297
HOT GAS GOING
AROUND THE CENTRAL OBJECT.

294
00:11:44,297 --> 00:11:46,858
AND WE WERE ABLE
TO MEASURE THE VELOCITIES

295
00:11:46,858 --> 00:11:48,429
WITH THE FAINT OBJECT
SPECTROGRAPH.

296
00:11:48,429 --> 00:11:50,594
AND LITERALLY USING
HIGH-SCHOOL MATH,

297
00:11:50,594 --> 00:11:53,231
YOU COULD DETERMINE --
KNOWING THE DISTANCE OF M87,

298
00:11:53,231 --> 00:11:55,000
KNOWING THE VELOCITY OF THE GAS,

299
00:11:55,000 --> 00:11:56,330
KNOWING THE SCALE
OF THIS PICTURE --

300
00:11:56,330 --> 00:11:58,858
YOU WERE ABLE
TO VERY QUICKLY DISCOVER THAT,

301
00:11:58,858 --> 00:12:01,825
WITHIN A VOLUME
OF LESS THAN A SOLAR SYSTEM,

302
00:12:01,825 --> 00:12:06,033
THERE WERE THREE BILLION TIMES
THE MASS OF THE SUN.

303
00:12:06,033 --> 00:12:08,363
EINSTEIN WAS RIGHT,
BECAUSE NOTHING THAT DENSE

304
00:12:08,363 --> 00:12:10,363
CAN BE ANYTHING
BUT A BLACK HOLE.

305
00:12:10,363 --> 00:12:13,627
THIS ONE OBSERVATION
BASICALLY PUT TO AN END

306
00:12:13,627 --> 00:12:18,726
THE DISCUSSION OF WHETHER
BLACK HOLES EXISTED OR NOT.

307
00:12:18,726 --> 00:12:20,066
OKAY.

308
00:12:20,066 --> 00:12:22,132
OVER THE FOLLOWING YEARS,
MORE DISCOVERIES WERE MADE

309
00:12:22,132 --> 00:12:24,792
BY VARIOUS SPACE OBSERVATORIES
THAT DEMONSTRATED

310
00:12:24,792 --> 00:12:28,495
THAT NOT ONLY DID
SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLES EXIST

311
00:12:28,495 --> 00:12:30,825
BUT THEY MAY BE AT THE CORE
OF EVERY GALAXY,

312
00:12:30,825 --> 00:12:33,924
EVEN OUR OWN MILKY WAY.

313
00:12:33,924 --> 00:12:37,462
HERE WE HAVE A BLACK HOLE
GOING THROUGH SPACE.

314
00:12:37,462 --> 00:12:39,132
AND AN UNSUSPECTING STAR.

315
00:12:39,132 --> 00:12:40,561
BY THE WAY,
THIS IS AN ARTIST'S RENDITION.

316
00:12:40,561 --> 00:12:41,726
[ CHUCKLES ]

317
00:12:41,726 --> 00:12:43,627
AN UNSUSPECTING STAR GETS
A LITTLE TOO CLOSE,

318
00:12:43,627 --> 00:12:45,594
GETS CAUGHT UP
IN THE WEB OF GRAVITY,

319
00:12:45,594 --> 00:12:47,330
STARTS GETTING TORN APART,

320
00:12:47,330 --> 00:12:50,330
CREATES AN ACCRETION DISK
OF HOT GAS AND DUST

321
00:12:50,330 --> 00:12:52,693
ROTATING RAPIDLY
AROUND THE BLACK HOLE.

322
00:12:52,693 --> 00:12:55,231
BLACK HOLES --
CONTRARY TO POPULAR BELIEF,

323
00:12:55,231 --> 00:12:56,924
THEY'RE NOT
THE ULTIMATE ROACH MOTEL.

324
00:12:56,924 --> 00:12:58,396
THEY DON'T EAT EVERYTHING.

325
00:12:58,396 --> 00:13:00,693
THEY'RE VERY MESSY EATERS.

326
00:13:00,693 --> 00:13:02,957
THEY EAT,
AND THEY'RE VERY, VERY MESSY.

327
00:13:02,957 --> 00:13:04,726
YOU'VE GOT
TREMENDOUS MAGNETIC FIELDS

328
00:13:04,726 --> 00:13:08,132
CREATED BY THE RAPIDLY ROTATING
CHARGED PARTICLES HERE,

329
00:13:08,132 --> 00:13:09,660
WHICH CREATE MAGNETIC FIELDS.

330
00:13:09,660 --> 00:13:11,396
AND SOME OF THE MATTER
THAT DOESN'T GET TRAPPED IN

331
00:13:11,396 --> 00:13:13,462
GETS SHOT OUT IN JETS.

332
00:13:13,462 --> 00:13:15,429
THIS IS -- THE CLOSER YOU
GET TO A BLACK HOLE,

333
00:13:15,429 --> 00:13:16,891
THE TEMPERATURES
GET HOTTER AND HOTTER.

334
00:13:16,891 --> 00:13:18,627
IF YOU REALLY WANT TO STUDY
THE INNER PARTS

335
00:13:18,627 --> 00:13:20,660
OF THE ACCRETION DISK, YOU
HAVE TO LOOK IN THE GAMMA RAYS,

336
00:13:20,660 --> 00:13:22,726
X-RAYS, 'CAUSE WE'RE TALKING
ABOUT GAS

337
00:13:22,726 --> 00:13:24,825
THAT'S 10 MILLION
OR MORE DEGREES.

338
00:13:24,825 --> 00:13:26,396
AND THE OUTER PORTIONS
OF THE RING --

339
00:13:26,396 --> 00:13:29,495
OF THE ACCRETION DISK
ARE A LITTLE COOLER.

340
00:13:29,495 --> 00:13:31,297
BUT WHAT WE DISCOVERED HERE

341
00:13:31,297 --> 00:13:34,165
WAS THE ACTUAL POWER SOURCE
OF QUASARS.

342
00:13:34,165 --> 00:13:37,759
THIS IS WHAT POWERS QUASARS --
ACTIVELY EATING BLACK HOLES.

343
00:13:37,759 --> 00:13:40,429
THE QUIESCENT QUASARS
ARE QUIET EATERS,

344
00:13:40,429 --> 00:13:41,792
NOT EATING TOO MUCH AT A TIME,

345
00:13:41,792 --> 00:13:44,627
AND THE ACTIVE QUASARS
THAT ARE HIGHLY VARIABLE

346
00:13:44,627 --> 00:13:48,660
ARE PROBABLY CONSUMING
AT A HIGH RATE.

347
00:13:48,660 --> 00:13:50,858
NOW THE STAGE IS SET
FOR THE NEXT MYSTERY.

348
00:13:50,858 --> 00:13:54,033
ARE QUASARS THE HOMELESS
CITIZENS OF OUR UNIVERSE

349
00:13:54,033 --> 00:13:57,924
OR ARE THEY AN INTEGRAL PART
OF SOME LARGER STRUCTURES?

350
00:13:57,924 --> 00:14:00,561
MY FRIEND AND COLLEAGUE
FROM PRINCETON,

351
00:14:00,561 --> 00:14:02,462
WHEN I WAS AT PRINCETON,
WAS JOHN BAHCALL,

352
00:14:02,462 --> 00:14:04,297
AND HE WAS LOOKING FORWARD
TO USING HUBBLE

353
00:14:04,297 --> 00:14:08,165
BECAUSE HIS THEORY WAS THAT
QUASARS WERE REALLY IN GALAXIES,

354
00:14:08,165 --> 00:14:10,264
THAT QUASARS WEREN'T HOMELESS,
SO TO SPEAK,

355
00:14:10,264 --> 00:14:11,957
THAT THEY LIVED IN GALAXIES.

356
00:14:11,957 --> 00:14:14,099
AND INDEED, WITH HUBBLE
IMAGING CAPABILITY --

357
00:14:14,099 --> 00:14:15,495
THIS IS A HUBBLE IMAGE.

358
00:14:15,495 --> 00:14:18,099
THIS IS A RADIO JET
COMING OUT OF THIS GALAXY.

359
00:14:18,099 --> 00:14:20,396
AND ZOOMING IN ON THE CENTER
OF THE GALAXY WITH HUBBLE,

360
00:14:20,396 --> 00:14:21,594
WE SEE THE ACCRETION DISK

361
00:14:21,594 --> 00:14:23,891
AND WE SEE WHAT LOOKS
LIKE A BLACK HOLE.

362
00:14:23,891 --> 00:14:25,297
SO, JOHN WAS RIGHT.

363
00:14:25,297 --> 00:14:27,660
AND SUBSEQUENT OBSERVATIONS
HAVE SHOWN THAT ALL QUASARS

364
00:14:27,660 --> 00:14:31,660
SEEM TO HAVE A HOME
IN SOME GALAXY, AT THEIR CENTER,

365
00:14:31,660 --> 00:14:33,462
AND THAT THE POWER SOURCE
IS PROBABLY

366
00:14:33,462 --> 00:14:36,231
A SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE.

367
00:14:36,231 --> 00:14:37,924
THE LAST MYSTERY
THAT I'LL BE ADDRESSING

368
00:14:37,924 --> 00:14:42,792
IS THAT OF THE COSMIC
SOFT X-RAY BACKGROUND.

369
00:14:42,792 --> 00:14:45,594
BACK IN THE '80s --
THIS IS LOW RESOLUTION --

370
00:14:45,594 --> 00:14:50,000
THE FIRST X-RAY SATELLITES
SAW THIS FUZZ IN THE UNIVERSE --

371
00:14:50,000 --> 00:14:52,561
LOW-ENERGY X-RAYS.

372
00:14:52,561 --> 00:14:54,858
MY ANALOGY HERE IS IF YOU --

373
00:14:54,858 --> 00:14:56,891
IF I GAVE ALL OF YOU A CANDLE

374
00:14:56,891 --> 00:14:59,462
AND YOU HELD IT UP, RIGHT NOW,

375
00:14:59,462 --> 00:15:00,957
I WOULDN'T SEE
INDIVIDUAL LIGHTS.

376
00:15:00,957 --> 00:15:03,033
I'D JUST SEE A FUZZ
'CAUSE MY GLASSES ARE OFF.

377
00:15:03,033 --> 00:15:04,132
RIGHT?

378
00:15:04,132 --> 00:15:06,594
IF I PUT MY GLASSES ON,
20/20 VISION,

379
00:15:06,594 --> 00:15:08,561
SUDDENLY I'D SEE
IT'S NOT A FUZZ.

380
00:15:08,561 --> 00:15:10,759
IT'S ALL INDIVIDUAL CANDLES.

381
00:15:10,759 --> 00:15:12,858
AND THAT'S EXACTLY
WHAT HAPPENED HERE.

382
00:15:12,858 --> 00:15:15,792
THE EARLY SATELLITES
DIDN'T HAVE THE RESOLUTION.

383
00:15:15,792 --> 00:15:17,198
THIS IS A CHANDRA IMAGE

384
00:15:17,198 --> 00:15:19,726
THAT SHOWED THIS FUZZ WAS
ACTUALLY CREATED BY THOUSANDS,

385
00:15:19,726 --> 00:15:22,561
IF NOT HUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS
OF POINT SOURCES.

386
00:15:22,561 --> 00:15:24,066
IN FACT, THIS LITTLE AREA --

387
00:15:24,066 --> 00:15:28,033
THESE FIVE OBJECTS HERE
IN THE CHANDRA IMAGE

388
00:15:28,033 --> 00:15:29,165
MATCH UP BEAUTIFULLY

389
00:15:29,165 --> 00:15:32,165
WITH GALAXIES
IN THE HUBBLE DEEP FIELD.

390
00:15:32,165 --> 00:15:35,066
AS IT TURNS OUT,
ABOUT 80% OF THIS BACKGROUND --

391
00:15:35,066 --> 00:15:38,759
THESE INDIVIDUAL SOURCES --
TURN OUT TO BE QUASARS.

392
00:15:38,759 --> 00:15:42,528
ANOTHER MYSTERY SOLVED.

393
00:15:42,528 --> 00:15:45,165
NOW I'D LIKE TO WRAP UP
BY GETTING A BIT PHILOSOPHICAL,

394
00:15:45,165 --> 00:15:46,957
IF I COULD.

395
00:15:46,957 --> 00:15:49,363
I'VE TALKED ABOUT SEVERAL
LONG-STANDING MYSTERIES

396
00:15:49,363 --> 00:15:51,726
THAT HAVE BEEN SOLVED
OVER THE PAST 30 YEARS,

397
00:15:51,726 --> 00:15:55,726
BUT THE UNIVERSE IS
A VERY, VERY BIG PLACE.

398
00:15:55,726 --> 00:15:58,957
THIS IS THE DEEPEST IMAGE
OF THE SKY EVER OBTAINED --

399
00:15:58,957 --> 00:16:01,462
THE HUBBLE ULTRA-DEEP FIELD.

400
00:16:01,462 --> 00:16:06,363
THERE ARE OVER 10,000 GALAXIES
IN THIS ONE IMAGE.

401
00:16:06,363 --> 00:16:09,264
SOME OF THE GALAXIES ARE SO FAR
AWAY THEY'RE ONLY BABIES

402
00:16:09,264 --> 00:16:12,066
AS THEY APPEARED 13 BILLIONS
YEARS AGO,

403
00:16:12,066 --> 00:16:15,660
700 MILLION YEARS
AFTER THE UNIVERSE WAS BORN.

404
00:16:15,660 --> 00:16:20,858
YET THE IMAGE IS ONLY
ONE-FORTY-MILLIONTH OF THE SKY.

405
00:16:20,858 --> 00:16:22,000
IN OTHER WORDS, IT WOULD TAKE

406
00:16:22,000 --> 00:16:25,561
40 MILLION HUBBLE
ULTRA-DEEP FIELDS TO COVER

407
00:16:25,561 --> 00:16:27,924
THE ENTIRE SKY.

408
00:16:27,924 --> 00:16:29,627
IF YOU WANTED A HUMAN ANALOGY,

409
00:16:29,627 --> 00:16:32,726
GO OUT ON A CLEAR NIGHT,
GET A STANDARD SEWING NEEDLE,

410
00:16:32,726 --> 00:16:33,858
HOLD IT UP AT ARM'S LENGTH

411
00:16:33,858 --> 00:16:36,165
AND LOOK AT A HOLE
IN THE SEWING NEEDLE.

412
00:16:36,165 --> 00:16:40,033
THAT'S THE SIZE OF THE SKY
YOU'RE SEEING PORTRAYED HERE.

413
00:16:40,033 --> 00:16:44,099
SO, DESPITE ALL THE MYSTERIES
WE HAVE SOLVED,

414
00:16:44,099 --> 00:16:45,264
LET'S NOT GET TOO ARROGANT.

415
00:16:45,264 --> 00:16:46,891
AS I SAID, THE HUBBLE IS --

416
00:16:46,891 --> 00:16:49,792
I MEAN, THE UNIVERSE IS
A VERY, VERY BIG PLACE,

417
00:16:49,792 --> 00:16:52,528
AND THERE'S A WEE BIT OF WORK
TO BE DONE.

418
00:16:52,528 --> 00:16:55,132
IF THIS MAKES YOU FEEL SMALL,
IT SHOULD.

419
00:16:55,132 --> 00:16:56,363
WE HUMANS, AFTER ALL,

420
00:16:56,363 --> 00:16:59,033
HAVE ONLY BEEN AROUND
FOR ABOUT 100,000 YEARS

421
00:16:59,033 --> 00:17:02,924
ON A PLANET THAT'S BEEN HERE
FOR FOUR BILLION YEARS OR SO.

422
00:17:02,924 --> 00:17:04,924
WE LIVE ON A SMALL ROCK
CALLED THE EARTH,

423
00:17:04,924 --> 00:17:07,924
WHICH ORBITS A ROUTINE STAR
CALLED THE SUN.

424
00:17:07,924 --> 00:17:10,330
AND THE SUN IS ONE OF HUNDREDS
OF BILLIONS OF STARS

425
00:17:10,330 --> 00:17:12,066
IN OUR GALAXY.

426
00:17:12,066 --> 00:17:14,429
AND, SORRY, OUR GALAXY
ISN'T REALLY SPECIAL.

427
00:17:14,429 --> 00:17:19,594
IT'S JUST ONE OF HUNDREDS
OF BILLIONS OF GALAXIES.

428
00:17:19,594 --> 00:17:21,660
BUT BEFORE YOU GET
TOO DEPRESSED,

429
00:17:21,660 --> 00:17:23,429
ON THE POSITIVE SIDE,

430
00:17:23,429 --> 00:17:27,429
WE MERE HUMANS,
JUST IN THE PAST 30 YEARS,

431
00:17:27,429 --> 00:17:30,825
HAVE BUILT SPACE OBSERVATORIES
WHICH AN ENABLED OUR MINDS

432
00:17:30,825 --> 00:17:35,099
AND OUR SPIRITS TO TRAVEL
ANY PLACE IN THIS VAST UNIVERSE

433
00:17:35,099 --> 00:17:39,561
AND EXPERIENCE SOME OF THE MOST
VIOLENT PHENOMENA IMAGINABLE,

434
00:17:39,561 --> 00:17:43,165
PLACES OUR PHYSICAL BODIES
CAN NEVER GO.

435
00:17:43,165 --> 00:17:46,330
AND NOW, SPEAKING ABOUT PLACES
YOUR BODY SHOULD AVOID,

436
00:17:46,330 --> 00:17:48,132
OUR NEXT SPEAKER,
JEREMY, WILL TAKE US

437
00:17:48,132 --> 00:17:49,561
ON A MUCH MORE DETAILED JOURNEY

438
00:17:49,561 --> 00:17:52,660
THROUGH THE WORLD
OF BLACK HOLES.

439
00:17:52,660 --> 00:17:55,495
[ APPLAUSE ]

440
00:18:01,264 --> 00:18:04,528
-THANK YOU, ED,
FOR THAT WONDERFUL INTRODUCTION.

441
00:18:04,528 --> 00:18:07,033
I'D LIKE TO JUST START
WITH A PERSONAL REQUEST

442
00:18:07,033 --> 00:18:10,924
TO ALL THE STUDENTS IN THE ROOM
THAT WERE MENTIONED EARLIER.

443
00:18:10,924 --> 00:18:13,363
IF YOU SEE ANYTHING
OR HEAR ANYTHING

444
00:18:13,363 --> 00:18:15,693
THAT PIQUES YOUR CURIOSITY
IN MY TALK TONIGHT,

445
00:18:15,693 --> 00:18:18,660
PLEASE, PLEASE, DON'T
HESITATE -- LOOK UP MY E-MAIL.

446
00:18:18,660 --> 00:18:20,561
I'M THE ONLY JEREMY SCHNITTMAN
IN THE WORLD.

447
00:18:20,561 --> 00:18:21,627
[ LAUGHTER ]

448
00:18:21,627 --> 00:18:24,033
SEND ME AN E-MAIL
AND ASK ME YOUR QUESTION.

449
00:18:24,033 --> 00:18:26,231
I'D BE HAPPY TO TALK
TO YOU MORE.

450
00:18:26,231 --> 00:18:27,693
OR EVEN BETTER,
NEXT TIME YOU'RE AT GODDARD,

451
00:18:27,693 --> 00:18:30,000
JUST STOP BY MY OFFICE.

452
00:18:30,000 --> 00:18:31,396
SO, AS ED MENTIONED,

453
00:18:31,396 --> 00:18:33,660
I'M GOING TO TALK
ABOUT BLACK HOLES TONIGHT.

454
00:18:33,660 --> 00:18:36,165
SO, UH, LET'S START
WITH THE BASICS.

455
00:18:36,165 --> 00:18:38,561
WHAT EXACTLY IS A BLACK HOLE?

456
00:18:38,561 --> 00:18:41,561
JUST LIKE SAURON
IN HIS DARK TOWER...

457
00:18:41,561 --> 00:18:42,759
[ LAUGHTER ]

458
00:18:42,759 --> 00:18:45,033
BLACK HOLES ARE KNOWN
FOR BEING TERRIFYING,

459
00:18:45,033 --> 00:18:48,495
INVISIBLE SOURCES
OF DEATH AND DESTRUCTION,

460
00:18:48,495 --> 00:18:51,396
MUCH FEARED
BUT LITTLE UNDERSTOOD,

461
00:18:51,396 --> 00:18:54,132
FAR OFF IN THE LAND OF SHADOWS,

462
00:18:54,132 --> 00:18:58,594
VEILED IN AN IMPENETRABLE CLOAK
OF MYSTERY.

463
00:18:58,594 --> 00:19:02,033
WELL, I'M AFRAID I'VE GOT
SOME DISAPPOINTING NEWS FOR YOU.

464
00:19:02,033 --> 00:19:04,693
BLACK HOLES ARE ACTUALLY BORING.

465
00:19:04,693 --> 00:19:07,858
THERE IS LITERALLY NOTHING
TO THEM.

466
00:19:07,858 --> 00:19:13,066
NOW, THE COSMIC WEB OF GALAXIES
IS INTRICATE AND BEAUTIFUL.

467
00:19:13,066 --> 00:19:17,396
STARS ARE SOURCES
OF TWINKLING WONDER.

468
00:19:17,396 --> 00:19:21,000
PLANETS ARE GRACEFUL
AND MAJESTIC.

469
00:19:21,000 --> 00:19:23,000
BUT BLACK HOLES...

470
00:19:23,000 --> 00:19:24,726
ARE BLACK.

471
00:19:24,726 --> 00:19:27,264
LET'S ZOOM IN
FOR A CLOSER LOOK, PLEASE.

472
00:19:27,264 --> 00:19:28,264
[ LAUGHTER ]

473
00:19:28,264 --> 00:19:31,066
YEP, STILL BORING.

474
00:19:31,066 --> 00:19:34,099
IT'S REALLY ONLY
WHEN WE ZOOM OUT

475
00:19:34,099 --> 00:19:36,594
AND SEE THE BLACK HOLE
IN THE CONTEXT

476
00:19:36,594 --> 00:19:40,198
OF ITS SURROUNDING ENVIRONMENT
DO WE BEGIN TO APPRECIATE

477
00:19:40,198 --> 00:19:42,858
HOW THEY MIGHT NOT BE SO BORING
AFTER ALL.

478
00:19:42,858 --> 00:19:44,264
TRULY, IT'S THE STUFF

479
00:19:44,264 --> 00:19:48,264
AROUND BLACK HOLES
THAT MAKES THEM SO INTERESTING.

480
00:19:48,264 --> 00:19:50,429
AND WHEN THIS STUFF IS GAS,

481
00:19:50,429 --> 00:19:53,033
IT USUALLY FORMS SOMETHING
CALLED AN ACCRETION DISK,

482
00:19:53,033 --> 00:19:54,462
LIKE ED MENTIONED.

483
00:19:54,462 --> 00:19:58,528
WHAT WE'RE WATCHING HERE
IS AN ARTIST'S IMPRESSION

484
00:19:58,528 --> 00:20:01,825
OF WHAT AN ACCRETION DISK
WOULD LOOK LIKE CLOSE UP.

485
00:20:01,825 --> 00:20:04,297
NOW, THAT IS BEAUTIFUL.

486
00:20:04,297 --> 00:20:07,858
AND WHILE I ADMIT I AM CERTAINLY
BIASED ON THE SUBJECT,

487
00:20:07,858 --> 00:20:12,066
I CAN'T HELP BUT THINK THAT
THE ASTROPHYSICIST'S IMPRESSION

488
00:20:12,066 --> 00:20:15,363
OF AN ACCRETION DISK IS
EVEN MORE BEAUTIFUL.

489
00:20:15,363 --> 00:20:20,000
BLACK HOLES ARE SUCH POWERFUL
GRAVITATIONAL MONSTERS

490
00:20:20,000 --> 00:20:21,396
THAT THEY WARP AND TWIST

491
00:20:21,396 --> 00:20:25,429
THE VERY FABRIC OF SPACE-TIME
ITSELF AROUND THEM.

492
00:20:25,429 --> 00:20:27,264
THEY CAN ACTUALLY BEND LIGHT,

493
00:20:27,264 --> 00:20:30,462
LEADING TO IMAGES
LIKE THIS OF AN ACCRETION DISK

494
00:20:30,462 --> 00:20:34,396
SIMULTANEOUSLY VIEWED
FROM ABOVE AND BELOW.

495
00:20:34,396 --> 00:20:38,660
WE CAN EVEN SEE AN INNER RING
CAUSED BY LIGHT

496
00:20:38,660 --> 00:20:40,891
THAT GOES ALL THE WAY
AROUND THE BLACK HOLE

497
00:20:40,891 --> 00:20:45,396
BEFORE ESCAPING
AND EVENTUALLY MAKING IT TO US.

498
00:20:45,396 --> 00:20:47,957
I COULD WATCH THIS MOVIE
FOR HOURS.

499
00:20:47,957 --> 00:20:51,660
IT'S REALLY MORE -- IT'S
MORE PEACEFUL THAN TERRIFYING.

500
00:20:51,660 --> 00:20:56,033
AND THE TRUTH IS, JUST LIKE
A VORTEX IN A POOL OF WATER,

501
00:20:56,033 --> 00:20:58,429
BLACK HOLES REALLY
AREN'T THAT DANGEROUS

502
00:20:58,429 --> 00:21:01,363
UNLESS YOU GET EXTREMELY CLOSE
TO THEM.

503
00:21:01,363 --> 00:21:02,858
AND IN PRACTICE,

504
00:21:02,858 --> 00:21:07,462
IT'S REALLY VERY DIFFICULT
TO GET CLOSE TO A BLACK HOLE.

505
00:21:07,462 --> 00:21:09,792
WHY? BECAUSE --
FOR THE SAME REASON

506
00:21:09,792 --> 00:21:12,330
THAT PLANETS JUST GO
'ROUND AND 'ROUND THE SUN

507
00:21:12,330 --> 00:21:15,330
WITHOUT EVER
GETTING SUCKED IN --

508
00:21:15,330 --> 00:21:17,561
BECAUSE OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM.

509
00:21:17,561 --> 00:21:20,660
SO, GAS ORBITING
AROUND A BLACK HOLE

510
00:21:20,660 --> 00:21:23,627
CAN NEVER ACTUALLY
REACH THE EVENT HORIZON

511
00:21:23,627 --> 00:21:27,066
UNLESS IT FIRST SHEDS
ITS ANGULAR MOMENTUM.

512
00:21:27,066 --> 00:21:29,528
AND IT TURNS OUT
THIS IS QUITE DIFFICULT TO DO

513
00:21:29,528 --> 00:21:33,330
IF IT DOESN'T HAVE
ANYTHING TO PUSH OFF OF.

514
00:21:33,330 --> 00:21:35,726
IF YOU WERE A BLOB
OF GAS ORBITING

515
00:21:35,726 --> 00:21:38,363
AROUND A BLACK HOLE
AT HALF THE SPEED OF LIGHT,

516
00:21:38,363 --> 00:21:41,099
I MEAN, WHAT --
WHAT WOULD YOU PUSH OFF OF?

517
00:21:41,099 --> 00:21:44,924
I SUGGEST WE COULD ACTUALLY
LEARN FROM ROLLER DERBY.

518
00:21:44,924 --> 00:21:47,825
THERE'S A MANEUVER
CALLED THE WHIP.

519
00:21:47,825 --> 00:21:51,396
AND THE SKATER
ON THE INSIDE TRACK STARTS OFF

520
00:21:51,396 --> 00:21:55,330
BY GOING FASTER, AND THEN
SHE WHIPS HER PARTNER AROUND,

521
00:21:55,330 --> 00:21:59,165
TRANSFERRING
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OUTWARDS.

522
00:21:59,165 --> 00:22:02,000
AFTERWARDS, THE INNER SKATER
IS GOING SLOWER

523
00:22:02,000 --> 00:22:04,165
AND, IF SHE WERE ORBITING
A BLACK HOLE,

524
00:22:04,165 --> 00:22:07,330
IS ONE STEP CLOSER
TO GETTING SUCKED IN.

525
00:22:07,330 --> 00:22:09,462
AROUND REAL BLACK HOLES,

526
00:22:09,462 --> 00:22:13,363
MAGNETIC FIELDS
TAKE THE ROLE OF THE WHIPPERS,

527
00:22:13,363 --> 00:22:16,858
PULLING SOME GAS IN AND THROWING
THE REST OUT INTO SPACE.

528
00:22:16,858 --> 00:22:19,660
AGAIN, LIKE ED MENTIONED,
THEY'RE MESSY EATERS.

529
00:22:19,660 --> 00:22:22,495
IN THE ACCRETION DISK,
THE GAS IS THREADED

530
00:22:22,495 --> 00:22:26,528
WITH THIS COMPLEX, TURBULENT
NETWORK OF MAGNETIC FIELDS

531
00:22:26,528 --> 00:22:29,264
CONSTANTLY GETTING TWISTED
AND WRAPPED AROUND

532
00:22:29,264 --> 00:22:31,033
LIKE RUBBER BANDS.

533
00:22:31,033 --> 00:22:33,957
AND JUST LIKE RUBBER BANDS,
THESE MAGNETIC FIELDS

534
00:22:33,957 --> 00:22:36,726
CAN STRETCH UNTIL THE POINT
WHERE THEY SNAP,

535
00:22:36,726 --> 00:22:39,231
RELEASING MASSIVE AMOUNTS
OF ENERGY,

536
00:22:39,231 --> 00:22:42,924
HEATING THE GAS TO MILLIONS
OR EVEN BILLIONS OF DEGREES,

537
00:22:42,924 --> 00:22:45,891
JUST LIKE IN THE CORONA
OF OUR SUN.

538
00:22:45,891 --> 00:22:49,957
NOW, THIS SUPER-HEATED GAS
SHINES VERY BRIGHTLY IN X-RAYS,

539
00:22:49,957 --> 00:22:52,924
WHICH IS EXACTLY
WHY WE LIKE TO USE TELESCOPES

540
00:22:52,924 --> 00:22:57,231
LIKE CHANDRA AND NuSTAR
TO STUDY BLACK HOLES.

541
00:22:57,231 --> 00:22:59,495
NOW, ACCRETION DISKS
AREN'T THE ONLY WAY

542
00:22:59,495 --> 00:23:04,495
THAT YOU CAN STUDY THE CURVED
SPACE AROUND BLACK HOLES.

543
00:23:04,495 --> 00:23:06,330
ONE OF THE REMARKABLE
PREDICTIONS

544
00:23:06,330 --> 00:23:09,099
OF EINSTEIN'S THEORY
OF RELATIVITY IS

545
00:23:09,099 --> 00:23:14,495
THAT SPACE-TIME IS NOT ONLY
CURVED BUT IT'S ALSO TWISTED.

546
00:23:14,495 --> 00:23:16,429
IN THIS COMPUTER SIMULATION

547
00:23:16,429 --> 00:23:19,033
OF PARTICLES
PLUNGING INTO A BLACK HOLE,

548
00:23:19,033 --> 00:23:22,132
WE CAN SEE THIS EFFECT
OF THE TWISTING OF SPACE TIME

549
00:23:22,132 --> 00:23:23,825
MOST PROMINENTLY RIGHT

550
00:23:23,825 --> 00:23:25,528
OUTSIDE OF THE EVENT HORIZON,

551
00:23:25,528 --> 00:23:26,825
WHERE PARTICLES

552
00:23:26,825 --> 00:23:30,264
ARE BEING SWEPT AROUND
IN A COUNTERCLOCKWISE SWIRL

553
00:23:30,264 --> 00:23:32,165
AT NEARLY THE SPEED OF LIGHT.

554
00:23:32,165 --> 00:23:35,231
WE'RE WATCHING
NATURE'S OWN PARTICLE COLLIDER

555
00:23:35,231 --> 00:23:36,594
IN ACTION HERE --

556
00:23:36,594 --> 00:23:39,396
A FURIOUS MAELSTROM GENERATING

557
00:23:39,396 --> 00:23:43,495
HIGHER ENERGY PHOTONS
CALLED GAMMA RAYS.

558
00:23:43,495 --> 00:23:47,066
NOW, ALTOGETHER, THE PULLING,
THE TWISTING, THE SLINGING,

559
00:23:47,066 --> 00:23:50,000
THE WHIPPING OF GAS
BY THE BLACK HOLE

560
00:23:50,000 --> 00:23:55,165
LEADS TO TREMENDOUS HIGH-ENERGY
PARTICLES AND RELATIVISTIC JETS,

561
00:23:55,165 --> 00:23:56,726
BOTH OF WHICH CAN BE SEEN

562
00:23:56,726 --> 00:24:00,858
WITH TELESCOPES THAT LOOK
IN THE X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS.

563
00:24:00,858 --> 00:24:04,099
AND TO CONCLUDE, I WOULD LIKE
TO OBSERVE THAT THIS YEAR

564
00:24:04,099 --> 00:24:08,495
DOES MARK THE 100th ANNIVERSARY
OF EINSTEIN'S THEORY

565
00:24:08,495 --> 00:24:10,396
OF GENERAL RELATIVITY.

566
00:24:10,396 --> 00:24:14,693
AND WE'RE JUST BEGINNING
TO START TO SCRATCH THE SURFACE

567
00:24:14,693 --> 00:24:17,363
OF WHAT THIS REMARKABLE THEORY
PREDICTS.

568
00:24:17,363 --> 00:24:20,858
WE LOOK FORWARD
TO THE NEXT 100 YEARS OF FINDING

569
00:24:20,858 --> 00:24:23,759
AND CONQUERING THE BEASTS
OF THE COSMOS.

570
00:24:23,759 --> 00:24:27,462
AND NOW, TO TELL US EXACTLY
HOW YOU FIND THESE BEASTS

571
00:24:27,462 --> 00:24:29,858
AND TAME THEM
WITH THE NuSTAR TELESCOPE IS

572
00:24:29,858 --> 00:24:31,594
DR. FIONA HARRISON.

573
00:24:31,594 --> 00:24:32,693
THANK YOU.

574
00:24:32,693 --> 00:24:34,627
[ APPLAUSE ]

575
00:24:41,825 --> 00:24:43,033
-OKAY.
THANKS, JEREMY.

576
00:24:43,033 --> 00:24:45,429
SO, I'M GONNA TELL YOU
ABOUT DISCOVERIES

577
00:24:45,429 --> 00:24:46,858
FROM THE NuSTAR MISSION,

578
00:24:46,858 --> 00:24:48,759
WHICH IS THE FIRST
REAL TELESCOPE

579
00:24:48,759 --> 00:24:51,495
TO LOOK AT THE UNIVERSE
IN HIGH-ENERGY,

580
00:24:51,495 --> 00:24:53,297
OR BLUE, X-RAYS.

581
00:24:53,297 --> 00:24:56,297
SO, VISIBLE LIGHT IS MADE
UP OF A RAINBOW OF COLORS,

582
00:24:56,297 --> 00:24:58,330
AND SO IS X-RAY LIGHT.

583
00:24:58,330 --> 00:25:00,561
THIS IS A HUBBLE SPACE
TELESCOPE IMAGE

584
00:25:00,561 --> 00:25:05,561
OF THE NEARBY GALAXY MESSIER 82,
SEEN IN BLACK AND WHITE.

585
00:25:05,561 --> 00:25:07,396
WE GET MUCH MORE INFORMATION

586
00:25:07,396 --> 00:25:10,099
WHEN WE LOOK AT ASTRONOMICAL
OBJECTS IN DIFFERENT COLORS.

587
00:25:10,099 --> 00:25:13,264
WE GET INFORMATION
ABOUT HOW HOT, DUSTY,

588
00:25:13,264 --> 00:25:14,792
AND ENERGETIC DIFFERENT REGIONS

589
00:25:14,792 --> 00:25:15,891
ARE.

590
00:25:15,891 --> 00:25:18,924
MAKING AN ANALOGY
WITH THE VISIBLE PORTION

591
00:25:18,924 --> 00:25:20,792
OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM,

592
00:25:20,792 --> 00:25:22,066
BEFORE NuSTAR,

593
00:25:22,066 --> 00:25:24,297
WE COULD ONLY MAKE
CRISP PICTURES OF THE UNIVERSE

594
00:25:24,297 --> 00:25:27,627
IN RED, ORANGE,
AND YELLOW X-RAY LIGHT.

595
00:25:27,627 --> 00:25:30,462
THIS IS WHAT M82 WOULD LOOK
LIKE IF YOU COULD ONLY SEE IT

596
00:25:30,462 --> 00:25:33,429
IN RED, ORANGE,
AND YELLOW IN VISIBLE.

597
00:25:33,429 --> 00:25:36,792
MOSTLY WHAT YOU'RE SEEING HERE
IS DUSTY, WARM REGIONS.

598
00:25:36,792 --> 00:25:38,957
WHEN YOU ADD THE BLUE TO M82,

599
00:25:38,957 --> 00:25:40,957
THE BLUE HIGHLIGHTS HOT REGIONS

600
00:25:40,957 --> 00:25:42,957
WHERE STARS
ARE ACTIVELY FORMING.

601
00:25:42,957 --> 00:25:44,858
SO, NuSTAR HAS ADDED BLUE,

602
00:25:44,858 --> 00:25:47,594
INDIGO, AND VIOLET
TO THE X-RAY PALETTE.

603
00:25:47,594 --> 00:25:49,396
THIS IS BRINGING A RICHNESS
TO OUR VIEW

604
00:25:49,396 --> 00:25:51,924
OF THE ENERGETIC UNIVERSE
THAT WE'VE NEVER HAD.

605
00:25:51,924 --> 00:25:55,297
IT'S LIKE BEING AN ARTIST
THAT HAS A FULL SET OF PAINTS

606
00:25:55,297 --> 00:25:56,627
TO WORK WITH.

607
00:25:56,627 --> 00:26:00,561
SO, HOW DID WE ADD THESE COLORS
TO THE X-RAY BAND?

608
00:26:00,561 --> 00:26:03,165
WELL, IT WAS BY MAKING
A NEW KIND OF TELESCOPE

609
00:26:03,165 --> 00:26:04,627
TO IMAGE BLUE X-RAYS,

610
00:26:04,627 --> 00:26:07,066
GOING FROM
A PINHOLE-CAMERA TECHNOLOGY

611
00:26:07,066 --> 00:26:09,297
TO A REAL FOCUSING TELESCOPE.

612
00:26:09,297 --> 00:26:13,759
NOW WE CAN PAINT THE HIGH-ENERGY
X-RAY SKY IN ITS FULL GLORY.

613
00:26:13,759 --> 00:26:16,198
USING THE SAME ENERGY
OR COLOR X-RAYS

614
00:26:16,198 --> 00:26:19,495
THAT YOUR DOCTOR AND DENTISTS
USE TO X-RAY YOUR BODY,

615
00:26:19,495 --> 00:26:21,726
NuSTAR OBSERVES SOME
OF THE HOTTEST, DENSEST,

616
00:26:21,726 --> 00:26:24,759
AND MOST ENERGETIC REGIONS
IN THE UNIVERSE.

617
00:26:24,759 --> 00:26:27,825
BECAUSE HIGH-ENERGY X-RAYS
PROBE THROUGH YOUR SKIN,

618
00:26:27,825 --> 00:26:30,627
THEY ALSO PROBE THROUGH DUST
AND GAS IN THE UNIVERSE,

619
00:26:30,627 --> 00:26:31,858
ILLUMINATING OBJECTS

620
00:26:31,858 --> 00:26:34,594
THAT WOULD OTHERWISE BE HIDDEN
FROM OUR VIEW.

621
00:26:34,594 --> 00:26:37,858
BY EMPLOYING NEW TECHNOLOGIES
DEVELOPED OVER MANY YEARS,

622
00:26:37,858 --> 00:26:39,165
ON A SMALL MISSION,

623
00:26:39,165 --> 00:26:42,231
NuSTAR IS MAKING IMAGES
THAT ARE HUNDREDS OF TIMES

624
00:26:42,231 --> 00:26:45,858
DEEPER AND CRISPER THAN PREVIOUS
HIGH-ENERGY MISSIONS

625
00:26:45,858 --> 00:26:48,627
THAT WERE 10 TIMES
THE COST AND SIZE.

626
00:26:48,627 --> 00:26:51,825
SO, NuSTAR IS A SMALL EXPLORER.

627
00:26:51,825 --> 00:26:54,693
THIS IS THE SMALLEST SCALE
STANDALONE ASTROPHYSICS MISSION

628
00:26:54,693 --> 00:26:55,858
THAT NASA SUPPORTS,

629
00:26:55,858 --> 00:26:58,132
AND SO IT HAS TO LAUNCH
ON A SMALL ROCKET.

630
00:26:58,132 --> 00:27:01,462
NuSTAR WAS ATTACHED TO THE BELLY
OF AN L-1011 AIRCRAFT

631
00:27:01,462 --> 00:27:04,726
AND LAUNCHED INTO SPACE ON
A SMALL ROCKET CALLED A PEGASUS.

632
00:27:04,726 --> 00:27:06,792
THERE'S NOT MUCH ROOM
FOR THE PAYLOAD,

633
00:27:06,792 --> 00:27:10,825
WHICH HAS TO BE A SMALL FRACTION
OF THE LENGTH OF THE AIRPLANE,

634
00:27:10,825 --> 00:27:13,891
SO THE PROBLEM HERE IS
THAT X-RAY TELESCOPES

635
00:27:13,891 --> 00:27:15,297
ARE INHERENTLY BIG,

636
00:27:15,297 --> 00:27:17,462
USUALLY THE LENGTH
OF A SCHOOL BUS.

637
00:27:17,462 --> 00:27:19,660
THE WAY NuSTAR
ACHIEVED SCHOOL-BUS LENGTH

638
00:27:19,660 --> 00:27:20,924
WAS THE FOLLOWING.

639
00:27:20,924 --> 00:27:22,594
NINE DAYS AFTER LAUNCH,

640
00:27:22,594 --> 00:27:24,792
WE EXTENDED
A TINKER-TOY-LIKE STRUCTURE

641
00:27:24,792 --> 00:27:28,891
CONSISTING OF TENS OF THOUSANDS
OF PIECE PARTS, PIECE BY PIECE,

642
00:27:28,891 --> 00:27:30,198
LOCKING THEM ALL INTO PLACE

643
00:27:30,198 --> 00:27:31,858
UNTIL, 24 MINUTES LATER,

644
00:27:31,858 --> 00:27:35,132
WE HAD A STIFF TELESCOPE
WITH WHICH TO VIEW THE HEAVENS.

645
00:27:35,132 --> 00:27:36,957
MIND YOU, WE WERE NEVER ACTUALLY

646
00:27:36,957 --> 00:27:40,561
ABLE TO DEPLOY THIS FULLY
ASSEMBLED ON THE GROUND.

647
00:27:40,561 --> 00:27:41,726
SO, WHEN THE MARS GUYS

648
00:27:41,726 --> 00:27:43,891
TALK ABOUT THEIR SEVEN MINUTES
OF TERROR --

649
00:27:43,891 --> 00:27:46,363
THIS WAS MY 24 MINUTES
OF TERROR.

650
00:27:46,363 --> 00:27:48,693
BUT IT ALL WORKED PERFECTLY,

651
00:27:48,693 --> 00:27:51,297
AND NuSTAR'S BEEN ON ORBIT,

652
00:27:51,297 --> 00:27:54,825
MAKING UNPRECEDENTED IMAGES
OF THE HIGH-ENERGY X-RAY SKIES

653
00:27:54,825 --> 00:27:57,165
SINCE JUNE OF 2012.

654
00:27:57,165 --> 00:27:59,561
SO, MAKING
SUCH A HUGE OBSERVATIONAL LEAP

655
00:27:59,561 --> 00:28:02,759
MEANS YOU'RE GONNA DISCOVER NEW
AND EXCITING THINGS.

656
00:28:02,759 --> 00:28:06,528
NuSTAR WAS ABLE TO MAKE THE VERY
FIRST HIGH-QUALITY IMAGES

657
00:28:06,528 --> 00:28:07,825
IN HIGH-ENERGY X-RAYS

658
00:28:07,825 --> 00:28:10,033
OF THE REGION AROUND
THE SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE

659
00:28:10,033 --> 00:28:13,165
THAT RESIDES IN THE HEART
OF OUR OWN MILKY WAY GALAXY.

660
00:28:13,165 --> 00:28:15,660
WHAT WE DISCOVERED
WAS A SWARM OF DEAD STARS,

661
00:28:15,660 --> 00:28:18,759
CREATING A HAZE AROUND
THE SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE.

662
00:28:18,759 --> 00:28:20,924
THIS HAZE HAD
NEVER BEEN SEEN BEFORE

663
00:28:20,924 --> 00:28:23,297
BECAUSE WE DIDN'T HAVE
HIGH ENOUGH RESOLUTION IMAGES

664
00:28:23,297 --> 00:28:25,528
IN PENETRATING
HIGH-ENERGY X-RAYS.

665
00:28:25,528 --> 00:28:27,495
AS YOU CAN SEE,
THE PRESS PICKED UP ON THIS

666
00:28:27,495 --> 00:28:29,693
IN AN INTERESTING WAY.
[ CLEARS THROAT ]

667
00:28:29,693 --> 00:28:30,825
[ LAUGHTER ]

668
00:28:30,825 --> 00:28:32,495
SO, WHAT I'M GONNA
SPEND THE REST OF MY TIME

669
00:28:32,495 --> 00:28:35,099
TELLING YOU ABOUT
IS THE FUNDAMENTALLY NEW THINGS

670
00:28:35,099 --> 00:28:37,066
THAT WE'RE LEARNING
ABOUT THE PROCESSES

671
00:28:37,066 --> 00:28:38,561
THAT CREATED THE PLACE

672
00:28:38,561 --> 00:28:41,891
WE LIVE TODAY FROM THE SOUP
OF HOT HYDROGEN AND HELIUM

673
00:28:41,891 --> 00:28:45,066
THAT EXISTED SHORTLY
AFTER THE UNIVERSE WAS BORN.

674
00:28:45,066 --> 00:28:48,264
TODAY, 13.8 BILLION YEARS
AFTER THE BIG BANG,

675
00:28:48,264 --> 00:28:50,429
WE HAVE A RICH MIX
OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS,

676
00:28:50,429 --> 00:28:52,594
RANGING FROM THE NITROGEN
IN THE ATMOSPHERE,

677
00:28:52,594 --> 00:28:53,957
THE CALCIUM IN YOUR BONES,

678
00:28:53,957 --> 00:28:55,660
AND THE GOLD
IN YOUR WEDDING RING.

679
00:28:55,660 --> 00:28:58,396
THIS MOVIE FOLLOWS THE EVOLUTION
OF THE UNIVERSE,

680
00:28:58,396 --> 00:29:01,330
AS IMAGINED BY THEORISTS USING
SUPERCOMPUTERS.

681
00:29:01,330 --> 00:29:03,594
FILAMENTS OF HYDROGEN
AND HELIUM FORM,

682
00:29:03,594 --> 00:29:06,165
SHAPED BY THE GRAVITY
OF DARK MATTER.

683
00:29:06,165 --> 00:29:08,726
IN THESE FILAMENTS,
CLOUDS OF DUST AND GAS CONDENSE

684
00:29:08,726 --> 00:29:10,231
AND FORM STARS.

685
00:29:10,231 --> 00:29:12,528
THE MASSIVE ONES BURN HYDROGEN
AND HELIUM

686
00:29:12,528 --> 00:29:14,066
TO PROGRESSIVELY HEAVIER
ELEMENTS,

687
00:29:14,066 --> 00:29:16,330
LIKE CARBON, NITROGEN, OXYGEN,

688
00:29:16,330 --> 00:29:17,726
AND EVENTUALLY IRON.

689
00:29:17,726 --> 00:29:20,264
AND FINALLY, THESE STARS
RUN OUT OF NUCLEAR FUEL

690
00:29:20,264 --> 00:29:23,363
AND EXPLODE IN DRAMATIC EVENTS
CALLED SUPERNOVAE.

691
00:29:23,363 --> 00:29:24,726
WHEN THE UNIVERSE IS OLDER,

692
00:29:24,726 --> 00:29:28,660
SUPERNOVAE EXPLODE ALL OVER,
AS YOU SEE IN THIS VIDEO,

693
00:29:28,660 --> 00:29:30,132
MANUFACTURING ELEMENTS,

694
00:29:30,132 --> 00:29:32,099
SPEWING THEM
OUT INTO THE COSMOS,

695
00:29:32,099 --> 00:29:35,693
WHERE THEY CAN CONDENSE
INTO GALAXIES, STARS, PLANETS,

696
00:29:35,693 --> 00:29:37,033
AND LIFE.

697
00:29:37,033 --> 00:29:39,627
THIS MOVIE IS BASED
ON SOME GOVERNING PRINCIPLES,

698
00:29:39,627 --> 00:29:41,330
WHAT SCIENTISTS
THINK IS REASONABLE,

699
00:29:41,330 --> 00:29:44,924
BUT KEY COMPONENTS
ARE LARGELY BASED ON THEORY.

700
00:29:44,924 --> 00:29:47,099
HOW THIS ALL WORKS
IN PRACTICE IS A DANCE --

701
00:29:47,099 --> 00:29:48,792
A BACK AND FORTH
BETWEEN THEORISTS

702
00:29:48,792 --> 00:29:51,627
AND OBSERVERS WITH TELESCOPES,
INCLUDING NASA's

703
00:29:51,627 --> 00:29:54,099
PANCHROMATIC FLEET
OF INFRARED, OPTICAL, X-RAY,

704
00:29:54,099 --> 00:29:56,132
AND GAMMA-RAY MISSIONS.

705
00:29:56,132 --> 00:29:59,891
SO, HOW STARS ACTUALLY EXPLODE
IS A PROFOUND MYSTERY.

706
00:29:59,891 --> 00:30:02,198
IT TURNS OUT
TO BE REALLY HARD TO MAKE A STAR

707
00:30:02,198 --> 00:30:04,429
THAT'S IMPLODING
UNDER THE FORCE OF GRAVITY

708
00:30:04,429 --> 00:30:08,198
TO EXPLODE AND EXPAND OUT
INTO THE UNIVERSE.

709
00:30:08,198 --> 00:30:12,198
STELLAR EXPLOSIONS HAVE A LOT
OF SIMILARITIES TO ATOMIC BOMBS.

710
00:30:12,198 --> 00:30:14,891
AND SIMILAR TO BOMBS,
HUGE COMPUTATIONAL POWER

711
00:30:14,891 --> 00:30:17,891
AND THEORETICAL RESOURCES HAVE
GONE IN TO UNDERSTANDING THEM.

712
00:30:17,891 --> 00:30:20,891
BUT IN A HUGE FAILURE OF THEORY,

713
00:30:20,891 --> 00:30:24,462
MOST COMPUTERS CAN'T ACTUALLY
MAKE A STAR EXPLODE.

714
00:30:24,462 --> 00:30:26,594
WHAT YOU SEE HERE IS AN EXAMPLE.

715
00:30:26,594 --> 00:30:28,825
THIS IS A NUMERICAL SIMULATION
ON A COMPUTER

716
00:30:28,825 --> 00:30:30,429
OF A STELLAR EXPLOSION.

717
00:30:30,429 --> 00:30:33,891
WE CAN SEE HERE
THAT THE EXPLOSION HALTS

718
00:30:33,891 --> 00:30:35,957
UNTIL AN AD HOC MECHANISM --

719
00:30:35,957 --> 00:30:39,231
HERE, THE SLOSHING AROUND OF
THE CENTRAL PART OF THE STAR --

720
00:30:39,231 --> 00:30:43,264
IS PUT IN BY THEORISTS
TO MAKE THE STAR FLY APART.

721
00:30:43,264 --> 00:30:46,132
THIS CAN MAKE THE STAR EXPLODE,
BUT IS IT IMAGINATION

722
00:30:46,132 --> 00:30:48,396
OR IS IT REALLY
WHAT HAPPENS IN NATURE?

723
00:30:48,396 --> 00:30:51,792
TO DECIDE THIS,
WE NEED OBSERVATIONS.

724
00:30:51,792 --> 00:30:54,264
SO, PREVIOUS LOW-ENERGY
X-RAY TELESCOPES,

725
00:30:54,264 --> 00:30:57,165
LIKE NASA's CHANDRA MISSION,

726
00:30:57,165 --> 00:30:58,924
HAVE TAKEN PICTURES
OF THE REMNANTS

727
00:30:58,924 --> 00:31:01,924
OF SUPERNOVA EXPLOSIONS HUNDREDS
TO THOUSANDS OF YEARS

728
00:31:01,924 --> 00:31:03,231
AFTER THE EVENT.

729
00:31:03,231 --> 00:31:05,231
AND LIKE CRIME-SCENE
INVESTIGATORS

730
00:31:05,231 --> 00:31:07,198
WHO LOOK AT THE SHRAPNEL
AND OTHER DEBRIS

731
00:31:07,198 --> 00:31:09,594
TO FIGURE OUT
HOW AN EXPLOSION HAPPENED,

732
00:31:09,594 --> 00:31:12,363
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPES PIECE
TOGETHER THE WORKINGS

733
00:31:12,363 --> 00:31:14,264
OF THE BOMB
FROM WHAT'S LEFT OVER,

734
00:31:14,264 --> 00:31:17,165
WHAT'S STILL VISIBLE LONG
AFTER THE EVENT.

735
00:31:17,165 --> 00:31:19,297
AND AS YOU SEE HERE,
PREVIOUS X-RAY MISSIONS

736
00:31:19,297 --> 00:31:21,594
HAVE BEEN ABLE TO LOOK
AT THE HOT, GLOWING DEBRIS

737
00:31:21,594 --> 00:31:23,132
OF THESE EXPLOSIONS,

738
00:31:23,132 --> 00:31:25,297
BUT BECAUSE OF THE LIMITED RANGE
OF COLORS,

739
00:31:25,297 --> 00:31:28,000
THEY COULD NOT SEE
WHAT THE HEART OF THE EXPLOSION

740
00:31:28,000 --> 00:31:29,528
ACTUALLY LOOKS LIKE.

741
00:31:29,528 --> 00:31:32,924
NuSTAR HAS PROVIDED
A COMPLETELY NEW TOOL --

742
00:31:32,924 --> 00:31:36,033
THE ABILITY TO LOOK
AT THE RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

743
00:31:36,033 --> 00:31:38,330
CREATED IN THESE COSMIC BOMBS.

744
00:31:38,330 --> 00:31:40,363
THE RADIOACTIVE EMBERS GLOW

745
00:31:40,363 --> 00:31:42,759
AS ONE CHEMICAL ELEMENT
CHANGES INTO ANOTHER.

746
00:31:42,759 --> 00:31:45,693
HERE, TITANIUM
IS CHANGING INTO CALCIUM.

747
00:31:45,693 --> 00:31:49,528
ON COSMIC SCALES, IN ONLY GLOWS
FOR A SHORT TIME --

748
00:31:49,528 --> 00:31:50,891
A FEW HUNDRED YEARS --

749
00:31:50,891 --> 00:31:53,297
BUT THE RESULTING RADIATION
IS ONLY VISIBLE

750
00:31:53,297 --> 00:31:54,660
IN THE HIGH-ENERGY X-RAYS.

751
00:31:54,660 --> 00:31:58,132
AND SO NuSTAR CAN USE THESE
TO DIAGNOSE THE NATURE

752
00:31:58,132 --> 00:32:00,099
OF THE EXPLOSION.

753
00:32:00,099 --> 00:32:02,660
HERE ARE IMAGES OF THE DEBRIS

754
00:32:02,660 --> 00:32:05,495
FROM THE HISTORICAL SUPERNOVA
REMNANT CASSIOPEIA A,

755
00:32:05,495 --> 00:32:08,660
THAT ED SHOWED YOU BEFORE,
IN DIFFERENT X-RAY COLORS,

756
00:32:08,660 --> 00:32:10,297
SHOWING DIFFERENT ELEMENTS.

757
00:32:10,297 --> 00:32:11,693
THE RED AND THE GREEN IMAGES

758
00:32:11,693 --> 00:32:14,825
WERE MADE FROM THE LOW-ENERGY
CHANDRA X-RAY TELESCOPE,

759
00:32:14,825 --> 00:32:20,660
WHICH SEES THE UNIVERSE IN RED
AND YELLOW AND GREEN COLORS.

760
00:32:20,660 --> 00:32:22,198
NuSTAR HAS ADDED THE BLUE,

761
00:32:22,198 --> 00:32:24,594
THE FIRST IMAGE
IN RADIOACTIVITY.

762
00:32:24,594 --> 00:32:27,363
THIS ENABLES US TO SEE
THE VERY HEART OF THE EXPLOSION

763
00:32:27,363 --> 00:32:28,429
FOR THE FIRST TIME,

764
00:32:28,429 --> 00:32:30,363
AND YOU CAN SEE
IT LOOKS QUITE DIFFERENT

765
00:32:30,363 --> 00:32:35,363
THAN WHAT YOU SEE IN RED
AND GREEN.

766
00:32:35,363 --> 00:32:37,000
THIS NEW EVIDENCE IS TELLING US

767
00:32:37,000 --> 00:32:39,693
THAT THE SHAPE OF THE EXPLOSION
WAS BUBBLY,

768
00:32:39,693 --> 00:32:42,165
LIKE WHAT YOU WOULD EXPECT
OF THAT SLOSHING MECHANISM

769
00:32:42,165 --> 00:32:47,396
THEORISTS PREDICTED
REALLY HAPPENS IN LIFE.

770
00:32:47,396 --> 00:32:49,660
THE CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATORS
HAVE DETERMINED

771
00:32:49,660 --> 00:32:52,165
THAT THE SLOSHING AROUND
OF THE CORE OF THIS STAR

772
00:32:52,165 --> 00:32:54,429
WAS KEY TO MAKING IT EXPLODE.

773
00:32:54,429 --> 00:32:57,297
SO, FILLING IN THE PIECES
OF THIS COSMIC PUZZLE OF HOW

774
00:32:57,297 --> 00:33:00,396
WE GET FROM AN AMORPHOUS SOUP
TO WHERE WE ARE TODAY.

775
00:33:00,396 --> 00:33:05,132
SO, HERE'S CASSIOPEIA A
IN ITS PANCHROMATIC X-RAY GLORY.

776
00:33:05,132 --> 00:33:08,627
WHAT MADE THIS STAR EXPLODE
IS UNDERSTOOD FOR THE FIRST TIME

777
00:33:08,627 --> 00:33:11,066
THANKS TO THE BROAD PALETTE
OF X-RAY COLORS

778
00:33:11,066 --> 00:33:14,000
FROM NASA's SUITE
OF HIGH-ENERGY X-RAY MISSIONS.

779
00:33:14,000 --> 00:33:16,660
AND NEXT,
NEIL GEHRELS IS GONNA TELL YOU

780
00:33:16,660 --> 00:33:22,462
ABOUT EXTREME AND UNUSUAL KINDS
OF COSMIC EXPLOSIONS.

781
00:33:22,462 --> 00:33:24,396
[ APPLAUSE ]

782
00:33:30,462 --> 00:33:32,957
-THANK YOU, FIONA.

783
00:33:32,957 --> 00:33:34,627
IT'S A PLEASURE
TO BE HERE THIS EVENING

784
00:33:34,627 --> 00:33:37,264
TO TALK TO YOU
ABOUT SPECTACULAR EXPLOSIONS

785
00:33:37,264 --> 00:33:40,858
CALLED GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
AND THE BIRTH OF BLACK HOLES.

786
00:33:40,858 --> 00:33:43,594
AND I'D LIKE TO START OUT
WITH A COUPLE OF COOL MOVIES

787
00:33:43,594 --> 00:33:44,858
THAT WE PUT TOGETHER,

788
00:33:44,858 --> 00:33:47,396
THE FIRST ONE BEING
AN ATOMIC BOMB EXPLOSION

789
00:33:47,396 --> 00:33:49,363
THAT FIONA MENTIONED.

790
00:33:49,363 --> 00:33:51,726
SO, AN H-BOMB IS
THE MOST POWERFUL

791
00:33:51,726 --> 00:33:56,198
AND DESTRUCTIVE EXPLOSION
THAT WE HAVE HERE ON THE EARTH.

792
00:33:56,198 --> 00:33:58,132
[ RUMBLING ]

793
00:34:06,231 --> 00:34:09,330
THESE EXPLOSIONS PALE
IN COMPARISON

794
00:34:09,330 --> 00:34:11,726
TO THAT OF AN EXPLODING STAR.

795
00:34:21,396 --> 00:34:24,594
THIS IS A GAMMA-RAY BURST
WITH THE ENERGY EQUIVALENT

796
00:34:24,594 --> 00:34:27,693
OF 1 TO THE POWER OF 30 H-BOMBS.

797
00:34:27,693 --> 00:34:31,330
THAT'S 1 WITH 30 ZEROES
AFTER IT.

798
00:34:31,330 --> 00:34:34,924
GAMMA-RAY BURST IS A RARE TYPE
OF SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION

799
00:34:34,924 --> 00:34:37,924
IN WHICH A BLACK HOLE FORMS
AT THE CENTER.

800
00:34:37,924 --> 00:34:42,165
AND THEY'RE THE MOST ENERGETIC
EXPLOSIONS IN THE UNIVERSE.

801
00:34:42,165 --> 00:34:45,330
I'D LIKE TO TELL YOU ABOUT
THE HISTORY OF GAMMA-RAY BURSTS.

802
00:34:45,330 --> 00:34:47,759
THEY WERE FIRST DISCOVERED
BY THE VELA SATELLITES,

803
00:34:47,759 --> 00:34:52,231
BUILT AT LOS ALAMOS
NATIONAL LABORATORIES.

804
00:34:52,231 --> 00:34:55,594
THE VELAS WERE DESIGNED
TO MONITOR THE TEST BAN TREATY

805
00:34:55,594 --> 00:34:59,198
THAT THE U.S. SIGNED
WITH THE SOVIET UNION

806
00:34:59,198 --> 00:35:03,165
TO PROHIBIT EXPLOSIONS
IN OUTER SPACE.

807
00:35:03,165 --> 00:35:05,759
THEY ACTUALLY DISCOVERED FLASHES
OF GAMMA RAYS.

808
00:35:05,759 --> 00:35:08,759
THE FIRST ONE OCCURRED IN 1967.

809
00:35:08,759 --> 00:35:11,693
BUT LUCKILY,
IT WAS NOT A NUCLEAR WEAPON.

810
00:35:11,693 --> 00:35:16,858
IT WAS THE DISCOVERY
OF GAMMA RAY BURSTS.

811
00:35:16,858 --> 00:35:20,165
SO, GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
ARE EXPLOSIONS

812
00:35:20,165 --> 00:35:24,594
THAT ARE BRIGHT FLASHES
OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS.

813
00:35:24,594 --> 00:35:26,132
THEY OCCUR ABOUT ONCE PER DAY

814
00:35:26,132 --> 00:35:30,099
AND SPREAD OUT UNIFORMLY
ACROSS THE SKY.

815
00:35:30,099 --> 00:35:31,561
IN THE EARLY DAYS,

816
00:35:31,561 --> 00:35:35,528
THERE WAS NO UNDERSTANDING OF
WHAT COULD CAUSE THESE EVENTS.

817
00:35:35,528 --> 00:35:38,528
IN FACT, I REMEMBER A TIME
WHEN THERE WERE MORE THEORIES --

818
00:35:38,528 --> 00:35:39,627
PUBLISHED THEORIES --

819
00:35:39,627 --> 00:35:42,000
OF WHAT COULD CAUSE
A GAMMA-RAY BURST

820
00:35:42,000 --> 00:35:47,396
THAN THERE WERE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
DETECTED.

821
00:35:47,396 --> 00:35:50,759
THIS IS ONE OF MY FAVORITE ONES
ON THE NEXT SLIDE,

822
00:35:50,759 --> 00:35:52,429
WHICH WERE ALIENS
IN OUTER SPACE.

823
00:35:52,429 --> 00:35:54,858
THIS WAS AN ACTUAL NEWSPAPER
ARTICLE.

824
00:35:54,858 --> 00:35:58,891
ALIEN WARS.

825
00:35:58,891 --> 00:36:01,165
IN 1998,

826
00:36:01,165 --> 00:36:04,495
AN ITALIAN AND DUTCH SATELLITE

827
00:36:04,495 --> 00:36:06,693
MADE AN IMPORTANT DISCOVERY --

828
00:36:06,693 --> 00:36:10,198
THAT GAMMA-RAY BURSTS WERE NOT
OCCURRING NEAR THE SOLAR SYSTEM

829
00:36:10,198 --> 00:36:11,957
OR EVEN IN OUR OWN GALAXY,

830
00:36:11,957 --> 00:36:16,495
BUT WERE OCCURRING
IN DISTANT, FAR-AWAY GALAXIES.

831
00:36:16,495 --> 00:36:18,429
SO, THEY'RE
EXTREMELY BRIGHT EVENTS --

832
00:36:18,429 --> 00:36:20,924
THE BRIGHTEST EVENTS
WE KNOW OF IN THE SKY

833
00:36:20,924 --> 00:36:22,462
IN THE GAMMA-RAY BAND.

834
00:36:22,462 --> 00:36:24,363
BUT THEY'RE OCCURRING FAR AWAY.

835
00:36:24,363 --> 00:36:28,231
SO, THAT MEANS THAT THEY'RE
INCREDIBLY POWERFUL EXPLOSIONS.

836
00:36:28,231 --> 00:36:30,297
THIS IS AN HST IMAGE.

837
00:36:30,297 --> 00:36:33,891
YOU CAN SEE THE GAMMA-RAY BURST
IS THE WHITE LIGHT

838
00:36:33,891 --> 00:36:37,627
AND THE FUZZ IS THE GALAXY
IN THE DISTANCE.

839
00:36:37,627 --> 00:36:39,099
AND SO, THIS WAS REALLY PROOF

840
00:36:39,099 --> 00:36:43,165
THAT THE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS WERE
OCCURRING IN DISTANT GALAXIES.

841
00:36:43,165 --> 00:36:46,561
IN THAT SAME YEAR, IN 1998,

842
00:36:46,561 --> 00:36:49,033
I PUT TOGETHER
A TEAM OF SCIENTISTS

843
00:36:49,033 --> 00:36:51,957
TO PROPOSE
A MISSION CALLED SWIFT.

844
00:36:51,957 --> 00:36:55,165
AND WE PROPOSED THIS MISSION
TO THE NASA EXPLORER PROGRAM,

845
00:36:55,165 --> 00:36:58,264
WHICH HAS OPPORTUNITIES
EVERY COUPLE OF YEARS.

846
00:36:58,264 --> 00:37:00,429
THERE WERE 40 PROPOSALS
SUBMITTED.

847
00:37:00,429 --> 00:37:02,330
EACH ONE IS A PRETTY THICK
DOCUMENT.

848
00:37:02,330 --> 00:37:05,330
I STILL HAVE THE SWIFT PROPOSAL
IN MY OFFICE.

849
00:37:05,330 --> 00:37:09,429
AND WE WERE LUCKY ENOUGH
TO BE SELECTED.

850
00:37:09,429 --> 00:37:12,594
SO, WITH A TEAM
OF NASA, UNIVERSITY,

851
00:37:12,594 --> 00:37:14,660
AND INDUSTRY PARTNERS,

852
00:37:14,660 --> 00:37:18,033
WE BUILD THIS MISSION
IN A VERY FAST TIME --

853
00:37:18,033 --> 00:37:19,792
ABOUT FOUR YEARS FROM THE TIME

854
00:37:19,792 --> 00:37:24,528
WE STARTED WORKING ON IT
UNTIL WE LAUNCHED IT.

855
00:37:24,528 --> 00:37:27,099
IT WAS LAUNCHED IN 2004,

856
00:37:27,099 --> 00:37:30,363
AND IT'S BEEN WORKING SPLENDIDLY
SINCE THAT TIME,

857
00:37:30,363 --> 00:37:33,792
EVEN AS WE SPEAK TONIGHT.

858
00:37:33,792 --> 00:37:36,627
SWIFT IS A STATE-OF-THE-ART
OBSERVATORY PUSHING

859
00:37:36,627 --> 00:37:39,759
THE FRONTIERS OF ASTROPHYSICS
IN MANY DIFFERENT WAYS.

860
00:37:39,759 --> 00:37:41,330
YOU SEE ON THIS SLIDE HERE

861
00:37:41,330 --> 00:37:44,627
AN ULTRAVIOLET IMAGE WE TOOK
WITH OUR ULTRAVIOLET TELESCOPE

862
00:37:44,627 --> 00:37:49,693
ON BOARD OF THE NEARBY GALAXY
CALLED THE LMC.

863
00:37:49,693 --> 00:37:52,462
IT'S A BEAUTIFUL PICTURE.

864
00:37:52,462 --> 00:37:56,462
BUT I'D LIKE TO GET BACK
TO GAMMA-RAY BURSTS.

865
00:37:56,462 --> 00:38:01,693
AS OF TODAY,
WE'VE DETECTED 991 BURSTS,

866
00:38:01,693 --> 00:38:04,066
AND WE'LL CELEBRATE
DETECTING 1,000 BURSTS

867
00:38:04,066 --> 00:38:07,231
IN THE NEXT COUPLE OF WEEKS.

868
00:38:07,231 --> 00:38:10,297
WE'VE SIMULATED WHAT THAT LOOKS
LIKE ON THIS ANIMATION

869
00:38:10,297 --> 00:38:11,660
OF THE SKY.

870
00:38:11,660 --> 00:38:14,726
EACH BURST IS A FLASH OF LIGHT.

871
00:38:14,726 --> 00:38:18,231
AND IT'S SHOWN ON THE BACKGROUND
OF THE BEAUTIFUL IMAGE

872
00:38:18,231 --> 00:38:22,759
OF THE GAMMA-RAY SKY
FROM THE FERMI SATELLITE.

873
00:38:22,759 --> 00:38:26,660
EVERY TIME THAT SWIFT OR FERMI
DETECTS A GAMMA-RAY BURST,

874
00:38:26,660 --> 00:38:28,957
WE'RE PAGED ON OUR CELLPHONES.

875
00:38:28,957 --> 00:38:31,825
AND SCIENTISTS GET THE PAGE,
AND THEY GO RUNNING

876
00:38:31,825 --> 00:38:34,924
TO THEIR COMPUTERS TO SEE
WHAT THE UNIVERSE HAS SENT US

877
00:38:34,924 --> 00:38:37,792
AND WHAT WE CAN LEARN
ABOUT THE UNIVERSE.

878
00:38:37,792 --> 00:38:40,528
AND I WAS AT A RECENT
GAMMA-RAY BURST CONFERENCE

879
00:38:40,528 --> 00:38:42,297
WHEN A BURST WENT OFF,

880
00:38:42,297 --> 00:38:45,495
AND YOU COULD SEE PEOPLE IN THE
AUDIENCE SLOWLY FILTERING OUT.

881
00:38:45,495 --> 00:38:47,693
AND THEN, AT SOME POINT,
THE SPEAKER LEFT, SO...

882
00:38:47,693 --> 00:38:49,165
[ LAUGHTER ]
YEAH.

883
00:38:49,165 --> 00:38:54,231
YOU KNOW, THIS WAS AN EVENT THAT
EVERYBODY WANTED TO LOOK AT.

884
00:38:54,231 --> 00:38:56,957
ONE OF THE THINGS WE'RE LEARNING
FROM SWIFT AND FERMI

885
00:38:56,957 --> 00:39:00,297
IS WHAT'S CAUSING
GAMMA-RAY BURSTS.

886
00:39:00,297 --> 00:39:01,561
WHEN A STAR EXPLODES,

887
00:39:01,561 --> 00:39:04,825
ITS CORE COLLAPSES
TO A BLACK HOLE,

888
00:39:04,825 --> 00:39:08,726
AND THE GAS IN THE REGION
AROUND IT IN THIS GALAXY

889
00:39:08,726 --> 00:39:12,660
FLOWS ONTO THE BLACK HOLE
AND DISAPPEARS FOREVER,

890
00:39:12,660 --> 00:39:15,330
AS WE HEARD
FROM JEREMY SCHNITTMAN.

891
00:39:15,330 --> 00:39:20,231
BUT A SMALL FRACTION OF IT GETS
ENERGIZED AND ESCAPES IN JETS.

892
00:39:20,231 --> 00:39:24,132
WE SAW BEAUTIFUL IMAGES FROM HST
THAT ED SHOWED US.

893
00:39:24,132 --> 00:39:27,033
AND THESE JETS
ARE WHAT CAUSE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS.

894
00:39:27,033 --> 00:39:32,231
IT'S WHEN THE JET IS AIMED AT US
THAT WE SEE A BURST.

895
00:39:32,231 --> 00:39:33,891
ANOTHER IMPORTANT DISCOVERY

896
00:39:33,891 --> 00:39:37,660
COMES FROM USING GAMMA-RAY
BURSTS AS DISTANT BEACONS.

897
00:39:37,660 --> 00:39:40,495
THEY'RE SO BRIGHT
WE CAN SEE STARS --

898
00:39:40,495 --> 00:39:42,693
YOU KNOW, THEY'RE THE EVIDENCE
OF STARS OCCURRING

899
00:39:42,693 --> 00:39:45,198
IN THE VERY EARLY UNIVERSE.

900
00:39:45,198 --> 00:39:51,264
IT'S REALLY THE ONLY WAY WE CAN
DETECT EARLY STARS EXPLODING.

901
00:39:51,264 --> 00:39:53,627
AND WE CAN USE GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
AS TRACERS

902
00:39:53,627 --> 00:39:55,726
TO SEE HOW MANY SUPERNOVAE
WERE OCCURRING

903
00:39:55,726 --> 00:39:58,561
IN THIS EARLY PART
OF THE UNIVERSE

904
00:39:58,561 --> 00:40:05,264
AND HOW MANY STARS
WERE BEING FORMED.

905
00:40:05,264 --> 00:40:10,495
THESE EXPLOSIONS SPEW MATERIAL
OUT INTO SPACE AROUND THEM,

906
00:40:10,495 --> 00:40:14,165
AND FROM THEM, NEW STARS
AND NEW ELEMENTS ARE MADE.

907
00:40:14,165 --> 00:40:16,924
AND THEY'RE SPEWED
OUT INTO SPACE.

908
00:40:16,924 --> 00:40:20,561
GENERATION BY GENERATION,
THE ABUNDANCE OF ELEMENTS

909
00:40:20,561 --> 00:40:23,693
EVOLVES UNTIL WE END UP
WITH THE MIX

910
00:40:23,693 --> 00:40:25,429
THAT WE HAVE IN OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

911
00:40:25,429 --> 00:40:29,825
AND THAT OUR BODIES ARE MADE OF.

912
00:40:29,825 --> 00:40:31,396
WE'RE ALSO LEARNING
ABOUT THE EFFECTS

913
00:40:31,396 --> 00:40:35,495
OF GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
ON LIFE IN THE UNIVERSE.

914
00:40:35,495 --> 00:40:38,363
THEY'RE SO INTENSE
THAT THEY AFFECT

915
00:40:38,363 --> 00:40:43,627
AND DESTROY THE ATMOSPHERE
ON PLANETS THAT ARE NEARBY.

916
00:40:43,627 --> 00:40:47,594
LUCKILY FOR US, THIS IS
AN EXTREMELY RARE PROCESS,

917
00:40:47,594 --> 00:40:51,627
AND SO THE CHANCE OF THAT
HAPPENING IS INFINITESIMAL --

918
00:40:51,627 --> 00:40:53,231
YOU KNOW,
IT'S MUCH LESS PROBABLE

919
00:40:53,231 --> 00:40:56,858
THAN AN ASTEROID CAUSING
AN EXTINCTION ON THE EARTH --

920
00:40:56,858 --> 00:40:58,957
IN THE CURRENT ERA.

921
00:40:58,957 --> 00:41:02,561
BUT IF WE GO BACK
SEVERAL BILLION YEARS AGO,

922
00:41:02,561 --> 00:41:06,231
SORT OF IN THE MIDDLE AGE
OF THE UNIVERSE,

923
00:41:06,231 --> 00:41:08,660
THE MATERIAL IS
MUCH CLOSER TOGETHER,

924
00:41:08,660 --> 00:41:13,033
AND GAMMA-RAY BURSTS WERE
A MAJOR FORCE IN PREVENTING LIFE

925
00:41:13,033 --> 00:41:17,528
FROM FORMING THROUGH MUCH
OF THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE.

926
00:41:17,528 --> 00:41:19,462
SO, ON THAT CHEERY NOTE,

927
00:41:19,462 --> 00:41:23,495
I'M GONNA END MY TALK
ABOUT GAMMA-RAY BURSTS,

928
00:41:23,495 --> 00:41:25,792
AND WE'LL TURN OVER
TO JOAN CENTRELLA,

929
00:41:25,792 --> 00:41:29,066
WHO WILL GIVE US
CLOSING REMARKS.

930
00:41:29,066 --> 00:41:30,660
THANK YOU.

931
00:41:30,660 --> 00:41:32,594
[ APPLAUSE ]

932
00:41:39,693 --> 00:41:43,132
[ INSECTS CHIRPING ]

933
00:41:43,132 --> 00:41:44,330
-THANK YOU, NEIL.

934
00:41:44,330 --> 00:41:45,759
[ OWL HOOTING ]

935
00:41:47,495 --> 00:41:51,297
IT IS A DARK, QUIET NIGHT.

936
00:41:51,297 --> 00:41:55,561
YOU LOOK UP AND SEE OVERHEARD
THE MILKY WAY SPREADING

937
00:41:55,561 --> 00:41:58,792
ACROSS THE NIGHT SKY.

938
00:41:58,792 --> 00:42:00,858
SURVEYING THE BEAUTY
AND GRANDEUR

939
00:42:00,858 --> 00:42:04,924
OF JUST THIS ONE PORTION
OF OUR OWN GALAXY,

940
00:42:04,924 --> 00:42:07,363
YOU ARE MOVED
TO ASK SOME VERY IMPORTANT

941
00:42:07,363 --> 00:42:11,165
AND VERY DEEP QUESTIONS.

942
00:42:11,165 --> 00:42:14,132
WHAT IS THIS MARVELOUS UNIVERSE?

943
00:42:14,132 --> 00:42:16,198
HOW BIG IS IT?

944
00:42:16,198 --> 00:42:19,066
WHAT MAKES IT TICK?

945
00:42:19,066 --> 00:42:22,924
HOW DID ALL THIS COME TO BE?

946
00:42:22,924 --> 00:42:26,660
ARE WE ALONE
IN THIS VAST COSMOS?

947
00:42:26,660 --> 00:42:31,660
OR ARE THERE OTHER PLANETS
THAT HAVE LIFE, AS WELL?

948
00:42:31,660 --> 00:42:37,132
AND HOW DO WE FIT IN
TO ALL OF THIS?

949
00:42:37,132 --> 00:42:40,792
ASTROPHYSICS, THE STUDY
OF THE UNIVERSE

950
00:42:40,792 --> 00:42:47,462
AND HOW IT WORKS,
HELPS US TO PROBE FOR ANSWERS.

951
00:42:47,462 --> 00:42:49,396
AS WE'VE HEARD TONIGHT,

952
00:42:49,396 --> 00:42:52,033
THE BEAUTIFUL
AND MAJESTIC NIGHT SKY

953
00:42:52,033 --> 00:42:54,627
THAT WE SEE LOOKING OUT
FROM THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH

954
00:42:54,627 --> 00:42:57,297
IS JUST THE BEGINNING.

955
00:42:57,297 --> 00:43:01,429
MUCH OF THE STORY CAN ONLY BE
LEARNED USING INSTRUMENTS

956
00:43:01,429 --> 00:43:03,726
THAT ARE NOT SUBJECT
TO THE LIMITATIONS

957
00:43:03,726 --> 00:43:08,429
IMPOSED BY OUR ATMOSPHERE.

958
00:43:08,429 --> 00:43:13,363
AND SO WE GO OUT INTO SPACE WITH
NASA's ASTROPHYSICS MISSIONS,

959
00:43:13,363 --> 00:43:16,561
SUCH AS FERMI, NuSTAR,

960
00:43:16,561 --> 00:43:19,693
AND SWIFT.

961
00:43:19,693 --> 00:43:23,660
THESE HIGH-ENERGY MISSIONS
UNCOVER A DYNAMIC UNIVERSE,

962
00:43:23,660 --> 00:43:27,165
ONE DRAMATICALLY DIFFERENT
FROM THE TRANQUIL TAPESTRY

963
00:43:27,165 --> 00:43:33,660
WE SEE ABOVE ON A NIGHT SKY
FROM EARTH.

964
00:43:33,660 --> 00:43:38,066
BY OBSERVING COSMIC GAMMA RAYS
AND X-RAYS, THESE MISSIONS

965
00:43:38,066 --> 00:43:41,330
REVEAL THAT THE COLD,
DARK REACHES OF SPACE

966
00:43:41,330 --> 00:43:44,165
AND PUNCTUATED
BY TURBULENT FORCES --

967
00:43:44,165 --> 00:43:47,660
BLACK HOLES,
BURSTS OF RADIATION,

968
00:43:47,660 --> 00:43:52,891
COSMIC EXPLOSIONS.

969
00:43:52,891 --> 00:43:55,132
TONIGHT, YOU HAVE SEEN AND HEARD

970
00:43:55,132 --> 00:43:58,297
ABOUT SOME
OF THESE EXOTIC EVENTS.

971
00:43:58,297 --> 00:44:02,429
YOU HAVE ENCOUNTERED THE MOST
POWERFUL COSMIC EXPLOSIONS

972
00:44:02,429 --> 00:44:06,924
AND THE INFINITE DEPTHS
OF BLACK HOLES.

973
00:44:06,924 --> 00:44:09,330
YOU'VE LEARNED THAT THE ELEMENTS

974
00:44:09,330 --> 00:44:10,858
THAT MAKE UP OUR BODIES --

975
00:44:10,858 --> 00:44:12,231
THE CALCIUM IN OUR BONES,

976
00:44:12,231 --> 00:44:13,759
THE IRON IN OUR BLOOD --

977
00:44:13,759 --> 00:44:18,330
THESE ELEMENTS ARE PRODUCED
IN THE FIERY FURNACES OF STARS

978
00:44:18,330 --> 00:44:24,495
AND HURLED OUT INTO THE COSMOS
THROUGH GIGANTIC EXPLOSIONS.

979
00:44:24,495 --> 00:44:28,891
THESE AND OTHER
DYNAMIC PHENOMENA HAVE TAUGHT US

980
00:44:28,891 --> 00:44:36,495
THAT VIOLENT ENERGY IS VERY MUCH
A PART OF THE UNIVERSE.

981
00:44:36,495 --> 00:44:40,033
SO, WHEN WE GO OUTSIDE
ON A CLEAR NIGHT,

982
00:44:40,033 --> 00:44:46,495
WE LOOK UP AND ASK OURSELVES THE
GREAT QUESTIONS OF THE COSMOS.

983
00:44:46,495 --> 00:44:49,462
AND WE KNOW THAT WHAT WE
SEE WITH OUR EYES

984
00:44:49,462 --> 00:44:53,198
IS JUST THE BEGINNING
OF A MARVELOUS STORY --

985
00:44:53,198 --> 00:44:57,132
A STORY THAT IS STILL UNFOLDING,
FAR FROM FINISHED,

986
00:44:57,132 --> 00:45:02,726
AND EVER MORE EXCITING
AS WE EXPLORE AND OBSERVE,

987
00:45:02,726 --> 00:45:04,891
QUESTION AND REFLECT,

988
00:45:04,891 --> 00:45:07,726
DISCOVER AND LEARN.

989
00:45:07,726 --> 00:45:09,462
THANK YOU ALL FOR COMING WITH US